================================================================== @@@@@ @@@@@ @@@@@ Boulos @ @ @ @ and @ @ @@@@@ @@@@@ Lukin @ @ @ @ on @ @ @ @ Silberman @@@@@@ @@@@@@ @@@@@@ ================================================================== R E V I E W S ================================================================== Dead Sea Scroll Book Reviews, for Religious Studies 225 University of Pennsylvania, Robert Kraft, Spring Term 1995 Copyright by the respective authors; reproduction with appropriate credits is permitted. [[NOTE: The assignment was to summarize the reviewed book and to compare it especially with the textbooks used in the course, by James VanderKam The Dead Sea Scrolls Today (Eerdmans/SPCK 1994) and Joseph Fitzmyer Responses to 101 Questions on the Dead Sea Scrolls (Paulist Press 1992). As with this note, any comments by the course instructor are enclosed in double brackets below.]] ----- Neil Asher Silberman, The Hidden Scrolls: Christianity, Judaism, and The War For The Dead Sea Scrolls. Religious Studies - Dead Sea Scrolls 225; New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1994. Pp. vii-266. Reviewed by Christine Boulos "Our modern cultures and our modern religions have been shaped by the experiences of Rome. And if Judaism and Christianity initially represented a force of resistance to oppression and suffering, they have come down to us in only those forms that were permitted, or at least tolerated, by the Rulers of the Roman Empire. All other systems of belief were destined to be destroyed."(Silberman, page 261) It is in his book, The Hidden Scrolls , that Silberman develops this argument among the theories of a small hand of dissidents while taking the reader through the controversies over the publication and interpretation of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The dissidents, among whom are included Allegro, Eisenman, and Silberman himself, proposed, what seemed to many, as a "radical" interpretation of the scrolls regarding Jesus and early Christianity. Disgruntled by the lack of fervor and emotion used to assess the Dead Sea Scrolls, Silberman explains how the academic study of the scrolls led to the loss of the revolutionary message of the texts. The revolutionary message, to Silberman, Allegro, as well as Eisenman, dealt with the origins of the Christian faith. Silberman argues that it was both the conservatism of the Dead Sea Scrolls scholars, including Yadin and Milik, and the dominant Essene hypothesis that caused many to disregard the revolutionary impact the scrolls were destined to have on the beliefs and history of Judaism and Christianity. The conservatism portrayed by the scholars developed around the ideas of Christian biblical historians who had always interpreted the descriptions of Essenism as being a precursor of Christianity. Therefore, one was to acknowledge the "implicit evolutionary sequence in the common scholarly consensus about the religious development within Judean society." (page 90) According to the consensus, the Maccabean revolution marked the separation of both the Pharisees and Essenes from the Hasmonean rulers who were obsessed with earthly power. The separation of these more spiritual groups marked the beginning of the path that would lead to the Christian faith. It is not to the above-mentioned Christian biblical development that both Fitzmyer and VanderKam address the Christian interpretations of the scrolls. Rather, both scholars, as does Silberman, offer the arguments presented by many of the dissidents to the widely accepted views of the Christian biblical scholars. Among the dissidents is the man known as the Angel of Darkness by the Inner Circle, those responsible for the publishing of the scrolls. It is John Marco Allegro who raised the perception that the scrolls contained disastrous material about the Christian beliefs, such as those regarding the character and the life of Jesus. Allegro, working with the biblical commentaries, including the Nahum Commentary, made an interpretation that began the confusion and outrage regarding the origins of Christianity. Instead of seeing a reference to crucifixion as a way in which to interpret the Qumran sect as a foundation for Christianity, Allegro contended that the Qumran vision of a Teacher of Righteousness returning as a messiah was "common first century Judean superstition." (page 133) Therefore, according to Allegro, Jesus Christ was a hallucination of a fraudulent faith. Allegro argued that the messianic belief of the Qumran Community illustrated the lack of historical uniqueness held by the modern Christian public. Allegro's reputation as an enemy of organized religion was made even clearer when his book The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross presented his views of Christianity as a "drug-addled, orgiastic fertility cult." Silberman, who repeatedly acknowledges the bias presented by scholars according to their religious affiliation, notes that it was clear to Strugnell and others that Allegro's scholarship was motivated by his atheism. Furthermore, Allegro argued that the International Team understood the implications of this material and was therefore holding the publication of these texts from the public. VanderKam also summarizes, in a limited manner, the scandal surrounding Allegro and his belief that the "Catholic dominated group [International Team] was suppressing material because it was known to be harmful to Christianity." (page 192) Through detailed personal interviews with key scholars, Silberman points out that the main argument to contradict Allegro's conclusions is that the scrolls do provide evidence about the beliefs of Jesus and His followers later transformed and hidden by Christian scribes. Silberman proposes that, as the scrolls are "contemporary, unrevised religious literature of first century Judea" (page 135), one is to conclude that the belief of the advent of a messiah was a hope of every Judean and Galilean not benefiting from the Roman regime. With messianic belief being an issue valued by many Judeans, as illustrated directly in the texts, I find it hard to agree with Allegro's assumptions. For many Judeans and Galileans, this belief in the advent of Israel's messiah or messiahs transformed into national salvation, as the Roman regime became more adamant about pacifying the Judeans. With the rage against Allegro and his beliefs at a climax, many dissident explanations between Essenism, Christianity, and Judaism were, and continue to be, developed. Among the interpretations are those proposed by Silberman. For it is he who stresses that the widely accepted beliefs of the Essene faith, being merely a backdrop for the development of both Judaism and Christianity, is explored further in such texts as the War Scroll. Among the many religious sects in the first century of the Common Era of the Judean society, all held a single identical belief of resistance against the Roman government. Thus, Jesus Christ, born at the time of the death of King Herod and growing at the time of Pontius Pilate, shared many similarities with his Judean contemporaries. For it was the followers of Jesus, John the Baptist, and the Teacher of Righteousness that maintained the objective of resisting the rise of the Roman Empire. As stated above, this is developed further in the War Scroll, where we see a correlation between the Qumran Community, Judeans, and the early Christians inevitable rise against Rome. Silberman illustrates his ability to support the theories presented by explaining the divergence that resulted between the Christians and Judeans. According to Silberman, it was in later times that the Christians would abandon the Law of Moses and await the incarnated messiah for the remission of all mankind's sins. The Judeans in the first century had faith that their destiny was to stand firm by their beliefs and their Temple until the return of the Teacher of Righteousness. Therefore, the Judeans believed that they would overcome the Sons of Darkness only through strict observance of their laws. Silberman concludes that for both Christians and Judeans, the correlation of spiritual liberation was too poignant not to acknowledge. To further portray the inability, whether conscious or unconscious, of the International Team to interpret the hidden message of Judaism and Christianity in the scrolls, Silberman thoroughly explains the theories of Professor Robert Eisenman. For Eisenman, the scrolls encompassed the evidence needed to challenge traditional Judaic and Christian history. Silberman, acknowledging that Eisenman's connections are based on "intuitive leaps" (page 189), maintains that Eisenman proposes an intriguing challenge. For Eisenman presents the Qumran community as the focus of a national resistance campaign towards both the Roman regime and the Jewish aristocracy that supported the rise of the Romans. The basis of his challenge identifies the Apostle Paul as a "kinsman of King Agrippa, who saw in the Jewish messianic movement and one of its many martyred leaders the raw material for a very different faith." (page 193) According to Eisenman, the birth of Christianity entails the radical spiritual transformation of Saul, who upon being struck blind with his vision of Jesus became the born-again Paul. While traveling to Damascus, Saul was told that if he found any who belonged to the "Way" he was to bring them to Jerusalem. The term the "Way" was one that was used frequently in the scrolls in reference to the Community. Eisenman argues that it was at the time of Saul's conversion that Jewish messianism underwent a transformation developing into early Christianity. This early Christianity developed once Paul entered the Qumran Community and, upon opposing the beliefs of the movement, began experiencing visions of Jesus Christ. Eisenman contends that Christ was the alter-ego of Paul, reflecting Paul's persona, thereby allowing Paul to create Christ into an "actual supernatural being." (page 194) Where Silberman reenacts with detail the pursuit carried out by Eisenman to publicize and acquire acknowledgment of his theories, VanderKam evaluates little more than what the theory signifies. While describing the scrolls in regards to their relation with the New Testament, VanderKam states that Eisenman "posited a 'Zadokite' movement that existed for centuries and included Ezra, Judas Maccabeus, John the Baptist, Jesus, and his brother James; it became sectarian only in the first century A.D." (page 161) Silberman takes the account of the theory to a higher dimension by explaining Eisenman's belief that Christianity was an intentional ideological development from the Jewish messianism, as acknowledged by the Qumran community. Thus, Paul established the foundations of the Christian faith based on the teachings of Jesus Christ only after the death of Christ. Nevertheless, both Silberman and VanderKam develop an equally clear presentation of Eisenman's involvement with 4Q285, the Pierced Messiah Text. Eisenman concludes that it is in the fourth line of a six line fragment that the reference to the killing of a prince descending from the branch of David signifies the crucifixion of the Christian messiah. VanderKam states that after careful examination of the fragment, the fourth line should be interpreted as the prince committing the killing. Therefore, according to VanderKam, another possible correlation to the New Testament is discredited. Regardless of the lack of acknowledgment Eisenman received from the other scholars, his support, and the support of many others who link Christianity to the scrolls, rested on the fact that there is very little evidence that attests for the historical version portrayed in the New Testament. Silberman points out that a source greatly relied upon by scholars, Josephus's Jewish Antiquities , contains one paragraph about Jesus that has been heavily edited by Christian scribes. The only evidence found to attest for the New Testament accounts are archaeological in nature: the 1961 discovery of a Latin inscription bearing the name of Pontius Pilate, Praefect of Judea; and in 1990, the discovery of a tomb used by the family of the High Priest Caiaphas. The lack of evidence to support the New Testament has allowed for scholars, including Allegro and Eisenman, to present the theories that challenge the traditional Judaic and Christian beliefs. With the controversy building over the lack of accessibility to the unpublished texts and over the desire by Eisenman and others to discredit the interpretations of the International Team, scholars developed their own interpretations of the hidden message of the scrolls. Silberman, Allegro, and Eisenman have developed theories that challenge the very roots of Judaism, Christianity, and their characteristic messianic beliefs. It is through Silberman's recounting of the publishing of the scrolls that the theories regarding the consequences of the texts, with their hope of bringing about the establishment of the Kingdom of God, are thoroughly presented. Reviewer's Name: Christine Boulos Postal Address (local): Box 0057, 3465 Sansom Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6185 E-mail Address: cboulos@mail.sas.upenn.edu ============================================================================ Neil Asher Silberman, The Hidden Scrolls: Christianity, Judaism, and the War for the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1994. Pp. 306. Reviewed by Jarid Lukin In the recent past, many new books have been published in an attempt to shed light on the story of the Dead Sea Scrolls to the general public. Neil Asher Silberman's new book differs from most of these other works in that it presents an intriguing, and sometimes controversial, look at the entire history of the Scrolls, from their placement in the Qumran caves, to the present day lawsuits in the Israeli courts. Silberman makes many claims, sometimes with and sometimes without sufficient evidence, that many would consider radical, or even just simply untrue. His book is heavily based on the view that the importance of the Dead Sea Scrolls lies within their content, and that this content has been translated incorrectly because of scholars' preconceived notions. Due to the bias in these translations, according to Silberman, the Scrolls have lost their revolutionary passion. To understand where Silberman is going with his book, one must first grasp the meaning of the title. He refers to the texts discovered in the caves at Qumran as "The Hidden Scrolls", as opposed to the usual designation of "The Dead Sea Scrolls". This is a significant fact that should not be overlooked. Silberman's choice for the title is, as pointed out in the preface, an intentional decision so as to emphasize his belief that the Scrolls were deposited in the caves as a means of concealment. This is a key concession that the reader must make if he is to except Silberman's view of the Scrolls' story. Silberman's premise is based widely on the belief that the Scrolls were written by a intensely nationalistic community, who in fear of the imminent destruction by the Romans, gathered some "precious scrolls of scriptures, hymns, and prophecies of the coming Day of Judgment", and deposited them for safekeeping in the mountainside. The account of the story of how the storage of the Scrolls took place is highly speculative. There is very little support given to show that each cave was an actual repository (geniza). In fact, Silberman ignores the fact that not all the scrolls were wrapped in linen fabric and placed in tall pottery jars. Caves 2 and 5 are indeed the only ones that show no sign of habitation. Silberman himself points out that this story is only "his vision", but that does not alleviate him of the burden of proving his point. In the first few chapters of the book, the reader learns of the common, accepted beliefs of the Scrolls' story. The time period of the Scrolls is generally placed during the Maccabean uprising (around 165 BCE). The discovery of the Scrolls took place while some shepherds were out with their herd and happened upon the cave luckily. The authors of the Scrolls are thought to be a group of Essenes that left Jerusalem around 125 BCE to establish a remote monastery. This isolated monastic community in the wilderness practiced what they thought was the true biblical faith. This community in Qumran was then destroyed by the Roman armies in 68 CE. According to most scholars, this was a religious evolutionary dead end that, despite its similarities, had nothing to do with Christianity. It was not a new religion, but rather a brief aberration from Judaism. Silberman believes that upon learning this story of the Scrolls, the public feels that it is above questioning or doubt. He, on the other hand, thinks otherwise. Silberman argues that the community was definitely not Essenes. This religiously fervent group of people that frequently discussed the "Day of Judgment" was surely not made up of pacifists. The Scrolls, rather, were written by a group of isolationists who focused all their hopes on the impending, cataclysmic end of the world. Regarding the discovery of the Scrolls, Silberman claims that they were not stumbled upon, but rather the shepherds were out searching for artifacts. Also, the point is made that the Scrolls weren't brought to the cobbler Kando for their possible leather value in making sandals, as commonly believed. The leather was obviously too brittle to be used as raw material. The book then goes on to describe the assemblage of the International Team. Some of the basic routines and techniques of the Team are also detailed. Included, is how the many scroll fragments were actually pieced together at first using Scotch Tape, an obvious blunder. Silberman provides us with explicit descriptions of all the major characters in the Scrolls' story, from John Strugnell, to Hershel Shanks. In one chapter, he even compares the primary players to the Sons of Light versus the Sons of Darkness. The book then continues by discussing the downfall of the International Team, and the key roles played by such people as Robert Eisenman. The entire court case of copyright infringement by Elisha Qimron against Eisenman, Shanks, James Robinson, and the Biblical Archaeological Society is recounted from beginning to end. The picture painted by Neil Asher Silberman in this book is quite interesting. Through extensive interviews with many of the important figures in the Dead Sea Scrolls' story, he is able to describe the many different theories involved with the Scrolls and the struggles to break the International Team's exclusive hold on the Scrolls. However, some of Silberman's points lack the support they need to overthrow the conventionally accepted ideas. Thus, many of his arguments must be regarded as pure speculation. Nevertheless, this book does make for an enjoyable and stimulating reading. Reviewed by: Jarid B. Lukin University of Pennsylvania Box 1043 3700 Spruce St. Philadelphia, PA 19104-6028