Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism Class Notes #01, 09 SEPTEMBER 1999 by Jeffrey Gaillard Syllabus/Bibliography, etc., are located on Dr. Kraft's homepage: http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/rs/rak/kraft.html [unfortunately, we were unable to access the materials for projection in class] Vocabulary Alert [see the electronic glossary to RelSt 002]: "Eschatological" = "relating to the study of last things," not only personal (death and its results) but also more general and even cosmic ("Messiah," judgment, end destiny of humankind, end of the world, etc.), frequently communicated by means of "apocalyptic" (revelatory) writings or reports. Much of the surviving evidence from early Judaism reflects eschatological orientation. Requirements: Oral exam (cumulative) of about 30 minutes will be required for each student at the end of the class (unless other arrangements are requested), which will count for about 1/3 of course grade. Research paper 10-15 pages (up to 5000 words), topic to be cleared with Dr. Kraft, preferably a comparative analysis. A 5-10 minute summary may be requested for presentation in class. For Lester Grabbe's two volumes, which apparently are now out of print, discounts are available through the CBD catalog (http://www.christianbook.com). For other suggested readings see the post-class memo to the class list (e.g. M.Jaffee's book on Early Judaism). Definitions and Chronological Distinctions: "Intertestamental Period" -- from the last of the "Old Testament" (OT) writings until the beginnings of Christianity. "Second Temple Period," subsequent to the destruction of the "First Temple" (ca. 960 BCE-587/6 BCE, begun by David and Solomon in Jerusalem; a "cultic" development in the "history of Israel") is the period from about 516 bce (return from exile) to 70 ce (first revolt against Rome). This is a properly "Jewish" (Judahite) Temple. "Greco-Roman Period," beginning with Alexander the Great (died 323 bce) until Constantine the Great (for easy memorization, the Council of Nicea in 325 ce is a convenient terminus). The Roman Emperor Constantine has his "vision" in 311/313 CE, which results in the Christain religion becoming "tolerated" (legal) for the first time. Western historical conventions call the subsequent period of (eastern) Roman history the "Byzantine Period" (with Constantinople/Byzantium as the main city). Digression on Pliny the Younger (nephew of the famous naturalist Pliny) who became governor of Bithynia around 112 CE under the Roman ruler Trajan, when he encountered problems with the Christians, he sought counsel from Trajan, and the correspondence is preserved. Basic Focus of the Course: 1. Pre-Rabbinic Jewish Evidence 2. Alexander of Macedon to Emperor Hadrian Highly Recommended, excellent reference source is "ABD" = Anchor Bible Dictionary, six volumes (1992). Comments on Primary Sources: Josephus, born 37 CE, right after the execution of Joshua/Jesus. Writes three major works, the biggest one, "The Antiquities of the Jews," which consist of twenty "books," or more accurately twenty scrolls/volumes, beginning with creation and extending to almost the end of the first century CE. An earlier work of seven scrolls is "The Jewish War." Philo of Alexandria was an older contemporary of Josephus, perhaps around 50 years old at the time of Josephus' birth, who left us many volumes of his interpretations of Jewish scriptures, especially the Pentateuch (the first five books, "of Moses"). Philo is a master of allegorical/psychological interpretation. -Does not offer much "historical" information; -A lingering question for scholars, was Philo a maverick or typical of Jewish thought in Alexandria (and the Greek world in general)? -Becomes a "Christian father" (many Christian interpreters loved his work). Apocrypha = early Jewish writings included in the Greek ("LXX/OG") and Latin ("OL" and Vulgate) collections, but excluded from the Jewish/Protestant canon. See the chart on the RelSt 135 home page. Psuedepigrapha refers to other Jewish writings from the period, often attributed to famous figures of the past (Enoch, Moses, Elijah, Ezra), but not included in traditional Jewish or Christian canons of scripture. Most of these books survived because of Christian interests (as also Philo and Josephus!). Recommended reading for next class, articles by Dr. Kraft, "Psuedepigrapha and Christianity," and "Judaism and the World scene." Both are accessible from the course webpage. Next class, will continue with orientation. //end of notes 99.01// --- Religious Studies 525: Varieties of Early Judaism Class notes #02, for 16 September 1999 by Chip Gruen The first hour of class was spent examining and browsing web resources that will be helpful for the class. Dr. Kraft and Deb Bucher steered the class through a number of sites. We started at http://www.library.upenn.edu Click on "Selected Web Sites and Search Tools" Click on "Religious Studies" to get to the department's web resources page. We looked at the "Electronic Journals" section. Of particular importance is Biblica (and its spinoff Elenchus Bibliographicus, from the mid 1960s), which provides good bibliography; and Ioudaios Review, for reviews of recent literature. Ioudaios Review developed from the IOUDAIOS-L discussion group (see below) and has been indexed to make it searchable by title, author, keyword, etc. Another excellent electronic book review source is the Bryn Mawr Reviews (especially classical and medieval works). The Religious Studies resource page also contains links to primary sources in their original languages and in translation. In addition to Dr. Kraft's page at http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/rs/rak/kraft.html, there are two other faculty members with home pages that link to many resources for the study of Judaism and Christianity. They are: Jay Treat's page at http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/hot.html and Jim O'Donnell's page at http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/jod.html Most of the resources will be duplicated in each page. However, each does contain a certain amount of different links. Additionally, they organized differently, so you may find something in one page that eludes you in another. For the purposes of our course, there are two discussion groups that you might want to join, if only to "lurk": ORION and IOUDAIOS-L. You can subscribe at http://orion.mscc.huji.ac.il/cgi-orion/goto.pl and http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/ioudaios/sub.html respectivly. Additionally, check out the links from Dr. Kraft's page to his other course pages (RELS 002, 135, 225, 735). ****** Sources: The sources for this period and topic fall into four categories 1) texts from inside a Jewish community (vast majority of the sources, often preserved only in Christian contexts) 2) archaeological remains (and interpretations) 3) art 4) outside textual sources We breifly examined the career of Tiberius Julius Alexander to illustrate some of the aspects of using ancient sources. Tiberius Julius Alexander (TJA) TAJ was the nephew of Philo. He entered political life in approximately 40 CE. He became the prefect of Judaea around 46 CE. A few years later he served on the eastern frontier (Parthia). In the mid 60's he became the governor of Egypt and Alexandria. During the turmoil of the year of the four emperors (69 C.E.) TJA supported Vespasian's claim to emperorship. Josephus mentions TJA in his Antiquites and contrasts TJA's conduct in relation to Judaism with the fidelity of TJA's father Alexander (Philo's brother). Because TJA is said not to have maintained the "traditions of his ancestors," he has traditionally been labeled an "apostate." However, there is now an attempt to reevaluate the stance of TJA in view of our better understanding of the options in early Judaism as well as our assessment of the perspectives of the sources (especially Josephus). For next time: Look at the on-line syllabus and find the topics that interest you. //end of notes 99.02// --- Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism Class Notes #03, 23 September 1999 By Josephus (Joseph ben Matthias), born about 37 ce, priestly family, raised in Jerusalem. Connection to Macc. Made general in 64 to fight the Romans; despite internal strife with another general. Josephus and his soldiers are defeated; Josephus decides against suicide and is taken captive. He writes The Jewish War from Rome, so all we know about him and his part in the war is from his own pen. Vespasian is Roman general at the time; later becomes emperor. Gives Josephus a slave as a wife, but later dismissed by Josephus, probably because of his priestly Jewish traditions. Wrote his first version of the War in Aramaic, but this is no longer extant. Later wrote it in Greek and claims to have gotten help with writing in this language. Some of Josephus' info in writing on the Maccabean/Hasmonean revolt (and civil war!) seems to be gleaned from 1 Maccabees, but there are divergences. Questions: did he have the text available, whether he wanted his text to be close to that text, did he use other sources? How confident should we be in making assertions about two texts which seem very similar? Also have textual problem of later variations due to copying procedures and updating; earliest Greek manuscripts of Josephus that we have are from 10th century ce. Many factors involved in analyzing ancient texts, and we need to be aware of the fact that as we make decisions, we are usually following the editorial work of a scholar or school and making a large number of assumptions. Need to get to the point where we learn to distinguish between the assumptions, and where we can make educated and confident assumptions of our own. We Read from the Life of Josephus (Vita) - apparently there were various divisions of priest families; belonged to the "first of the twenty-four courses," was of the chief family of that course; his mother was of the Hasmoneans (Maccabees). - therefore of (Maccabean) royal blood, as well as priestly, since Maccabees had united the kingly and priestly office. - born in the first year of Caius Caesar (Caligula, 37-41 ce), had 3 sons. First son named Hyrcanus, after the most powerful king of the Macc., whom Josephus sees as nearly a Messiah figure. Writes his "Vita" (not really a full autobiography) to refute some slander by a rival author regarding the lowliness of his family, etc. Digressed to Leontopolis (= Heliopolis), temple built in Egypt by head of high priestly house (Onias IV) who fled from Jerusalem at start of Maccabean uprising. Other Jewish temple found in Egypt on an island (Elephantine), excavated in 1920-30. Found an archive of Aramaic documents from about 500 bce. Did these temples have sacrifices? Josephus doesn't at all talk about the Elephantine temple, but does mention that there are several Jewish "temples" in Egypt. Much of the information regarding these eras is only becoming accessible recently. We Read from Jewish War, book 2, chapter 8, sections 2-14 = paragraphs 119-166 (note two systems of identifying textual locations, the older in Whiston [2.8.2-14], the newer in the Loeb edition [2.119-166]; both are now found in the recent one volume edition by Hendrickson Publishers). Three philosophical groups among the Jews during this time: Essenes, Pharisees, Sadducees Josephus explicitly claims that the Essenes are Jews by birth; perhaps there were accusations at the time that they were not, or traditions that failed to mention the Jewish connection -- e.g. Pliny the Elder mentions the Essenes, but doesn't call them "Jewish." Josephus makes a point of describing them as such. Presents them as an ideal group (just as Philo also does). Conquer passions and so on. Don't marry; adopt kids from other families and raise them as their own. Lived as a commune, whereby all possessions belong to all members of the group. They don't all live together, but many dwell in many cities, and a network of hospitality exists, so they can always stay with one of their own when they travel. Their piety is described by Josephus as being very extraordinary, and seem to pray to the sun for its rising. Can't do anything of their own will, but obey the traditions of the community. Only two things they can do liberally: to help others and show mercy. Anyone who wants to join goes through a long period of testing: several years of following the laws, but during this time they are not yet allowed to live with the Essenes. Josephus mentions elsewhere (Vita) that he tried various forms of Judaism, lived in the desert with a man called Banus, who was probably Essene-like, and later associated with the "Pharisee-way"; does not mention that he tried the Essene way of life, presumably because they were too withdrawn from society, whereas Josephus wants to maintain good social relations. They have prophets who foretell the future, and use "Holy Books". There are other groups of Essenes who are more "liberal" in that they marry and procreate. Pharisees -- considered to be most skillful in interpreting their laws. They seem to combine a divine predestination with a human free- will. Those who have done what is good in life have their souls migrated into another body upon death. The others are condemned to eternal punishment. Sounds like they have no chance of resurrection or re-incarnation. Pharisees are friendly to each other. Saduccees -- do not believe in predestination of any sort. God is not involved in what men do or decide to do. Are not friendly, rather "barbarous." Mention of the Essenes in Philo: Found in a fragment of the "Hypothetica" or "Apology for the Jews" (quoted in Eusebius). Philo has another account in Every Good Man is Free. The details differ somewhat in these two accounts. Mentions another sect called the Therapeutae, in The Contemplative Life (a companion essay to Every Good Man is Free). Josephus does not speak of them, nor does any other ancient source. Term is used in the LXX as a translation of the Hebrew word for "servant," so has sense of service, but also of medical service. Philo sees them as both servants of God and healers. Are described as being very similar to the Essenes, so may have been a subgroup of theirs, found all over, but especially in the vicinity of Alexandria. They read and write books, have poetry and hymns . . . READ Philo's description of both the Essenes and the Therapeutae for next class. //end notes 99.03// --- Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism Class Notes #04, 30 September 1999 By Christina Van Norman CD (or CDC) stands for the Cairo Damascus Covenant. It is sort of a Dead Sea scroll found (in two seprate manuscripts) before the Dead Sea scrolls were discovered. It is from the Cairo Geniza and was published in 1910 by Zalman (Solomon) Schecter. Fragments of the same material were found in some of the Qumran caves as well. A good question is, How did it survive to the 10th and 12th centuries in the manuscripts from the Cairo Ganiza storeroom when so much other stuff didn't? Maybe a copy was found in a cave around the year 800 and impressed the people of the time. A Syrian bishop named Timotheos around that time reported discovery of Hebrew manuscripts in a cave. Could it have been this? A medieval Muslim source also refers to the "cave dwellers." Could they be related to this? Something called the "Angel Scroll" was in the news last week. A Benedictine monastary in N. Germany supposedly leaked the information that they had a six foot scroll dealing with a revelation by an angel to a man named Yeshua/Jesus. The claim is that it was found on the east side of the Dead Sea. A respected American scholar of the Dead Sea scrolls in Israel named Steven Pfann has issued a report about it. He basically said that it sounds interesting but no one can really know until it is properly examined if it is authentic or not. Pliny the elder was a non Jewish first century author who was a contemporary with Philo and Josephus. -he was a Greek writing scientist/geographer/traveler who gathered his own and other peoples travels into a natural history. -Pliny the elder died in 79 after the eruption of Vesuvius -he provides a survey of Palestine and Judea and the Dead Sea (which he called Asphalites because of the asphalt found there). He located the Essenes in the Northwest area of it. He is the first author to identify the Essenes as being located in a specific place as opposed to living all over. He does not refer to them as "Jews." -Pliny was a major source used in the development of the "Essene Hypothesis" which claims that it was the Essenes who occupied Qumran and wrote the Dead Sea scrolls. Pliny reports the Essenes as having no women, stifling every urge, without money, and being "consorts of palms." Philo also has left us two separate accounts of the "Essenes" -- see computer text for a useful translation of Philo. There are many conjectures on the origin of the name "Essene." Philo associates the name with "hosios" which means "pious" in Greek. Some others see in the name a variation of the Hebrew word "hasidim" means those faithful to God's covenant, and recently (see the ORION discussion list on the Dead Sea scrolls) Stephen Goranson (Duke) has revived an old theory that the name derives from Hebrew "asah" = "to do" (the law). -there is also much discussion and many questions about how the manuscripts in the caves relate to the archeological ruins at Qumran and the date of the scrolls. Most of the scrolls that have been tested by carbon-14 methods seem to date to before the turn of the era. The Babata archive found near Masada which (about 50 miles south of Qumran) has scrolls dating from 132-35 ce. The Samaritan papyri found to the northwest of Qumran are earlier than the Dead Sea scrolls. One of Philo's two accounts of the Essenes was preserved by Eusebius, an early 4th century Christian "historian" and apologist -- the original treatise from which it comes has not survived. Eusebius sees Philo's Therapeutae as the first Christian monastics in Egypt. -Philo seems to call the Hebrews "Chaldeans" before his trip to Rome around 40 ce. After the Rome trip he refers to them as "Hebrews." This theory assumes that he learned about negative connotations of "Chaldean" in Rome. -Philo was a Platonist and really liked number theory, especially the number seven. -in his account the man referred to as the "lawgiver" and the "founder of the constitution of the Jews" is Moses. -he clearly puts the Essenes into a Jewish context and greatly admires them and their practices. *find and read his treatise on the Essenes (Every Good Man is Free)* -Philo describes the Therapeutae as similar to the Essenes, but in Egypt, near Alexandria (by the Mareotic lake)* *find and read the material on the Therapeutae (On the Contemplative Life)* //end of notes 99.04// --- Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism Class Notes #05, 07 October 1999 By Debra B. Bucher Philo Bibliography Best Greek edition: Cohn, Wendland, eds. _Philonis Alexandrini Opera quae supersunt._ Berolini : Typis et impensis G. Reimerii, 1896-1915. English editions: Yonge, ed. _The Works of Philo : complete and unabridged._ New updated edition. Peabody, MA : Hendrickson Publishers, c1993. Colson and Whitaker, eds. _ Philo : in ten volumes (and two supplementary volumes) : with an English translation._ Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press ; London : W. Heinemann, 1968-1981. (Loeb classical library ; no. 226-227, 247, 261, 275, 289, 341, 379, 380, 401). Secondary Studies: 1. Goodenough, E.R. _An Introduction to Philo Judaeus._ 2d ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 1962. Very detailed. Introduces Philo's religious sentiments, politics, and philosophies. 3. Goodenough, E.R. _By Light, Light: Mystic Gospel of Hellenistic Judaism._ New Haven, Yale university press, 1935. Goodenough sees Philo as a transitional figure between Platonism and the neo-Platonism of Plotinus (205-270 CE). Neo-Platonism described as contact with God at a more than rational level (an experience). This theme can already be seen in Philo. 2. Sandmel, Samuel, _Philo of Alexandria: An Introduction._ New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979. Easier to read than Goodenough. Includes a chapter on Goodenough's theory about Philo. 3. Wolfson, Harry Austryn. _ Philo; foundations of religious philosophy in Judaism,Christianity, and Islam._ Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1947. Described the Greek elements in Philo as a 'veneer' upon his Judaism. Was reluctant to describe Philo as a *Hellenistic* Jew, influenced by Hellenism and Greek thought. Philo Biography Scholars don't know much about Philo the person. More is known about his brother and his two nephews: Marcus Julius Alexander, who died young, but lived long enough to marry Berenice, Agrippa II's (44-94? CE) sister (Berenice later had an affair with Titus (79-81 CE) before he became Emperor); and Tiberius Julius Alexander, who was in the Roman military, became governor of Judea (46?-48 CE), governor of Egypt (66-69 CE), and then as a staff general for Titus in the siege of Jerusalem in 70. Philo's brother was involved in finance in some way. Josephus says that Philo's brother lent money to Herod, and gave funds for a gate of the Jerusalem temple. Most likely, the entire family were Roman citizens. Philo's familiarity with Greco-Roman thought is demonstrated through the similar type of allegorical interpretations he uses in his writings. Allegory was used throughout the Greco-Roman world. However, he does use other methods. His "Questions and Answers on Genesis" are examples of another type of scholarly or academic approach. Many of his writings seem to have been intended for highly trained readers, skilled in allegory. Philo was very much interested in interpreting the books of Moses (Pentateuch). He felt that Moses was a divine man (theos aner). In true allegorical fashion, his teachings concerning these books go well beyond what the literal meaning is on the page. His philosophy might be described today as a kind of psychology, in that he was interested in attitudes, states of mind, and how individuals interact with one another and the world. Philo was well known in the community. Both he ("Flaccum" and "Gaium") and Josephus (Ant. 18.8.1 #257-60) relate that he was part of an embassy to Gaius Caligula (37-41 CE) to restore special privileges to the Jews of Alexandria. Although Grabbe puts Philo's dates at ca. 20 BCE-50 CE, Bob would like him to be around until just before the Jewish revolt in Palestine, 66- 70 CE. Philo's treatment of the rise of Joseph in Egypt may reflect his view of the rise of his nephew, TJA. What does Philo teach us about Judaism in the Greco-Roman world? 1. Philo was a *Greco-Roman* Jew. There is no separating his Greco-Roman-ness from his Jewish-ness. 2. He is representative of a kind of Judaism--conscientious about community and about following the laws, even though he uses an allegorical interpretation of scripture. His perceptions of other varieties of Judaism can be seen in his "On the Migration of Abraham" (89-93). In this work, he criticizes those who distinguish a pure rationalism without reference to a community--those who perhaps take an even more allegorical approach to scripture than he. He believes in the platonic ideal in which, after a person has been enlightened, s/he must go back into the darkness of the cave in order to teach those still there. He seems to wants to take a more moderate approach: *not only* be aware of the meaning, but *also* obey the law. Discussion of "Every Good Man is Free" #74 sets you up with strange non-Greek moral groups, then discusses the Essenes, whom he describes as "devout in the service (therapeuo) of God." He later calls them "holy ones." A brief sidetrack into population figures. Philo claims that there are "more than 4,000" Essenes. However, there is really no way to know. Other population figures cited by ancient authors are just as difficult to understand. Whom exactly did the population figures include? Only Roman citizens? But the criteria for determining Roman citizenship changed over time. And a person could be a citizen of Alexandria, for example, without being a Roman citizen. Questions/Things to think about concerning the Essenes and Therapeutae: 1. What were associations in the Greco-Roman world like? And do the Essenes and Therapeutae resemble them? 2. Philo uses the word "synagogue" seldom. He tends to use "proseuche" (prayer locale) much more often to describe the *place* of worship (or whatever happened in a proseuche). "On the Contemplative Life" 1. Men and women are both there. Not, apparently, at Qumran, although it's very difficult to tell--at least there are few literary references to women. 2. Philo describes them as healers, but also uses the word therapeuo in the sense of "service." 3. Philo is loaded with intertextuality with the LXX/OG (especially the Pentateuch). 4. Important point: Most Jews outside of Palestine in the Greco- Roman world probably did NOT know Hebrew. Certainly the Jews in Alexandria used the Septuagint and Old Greek translations of their scriptures, not the Hebrew. For next week: continue with "On the Contemplative Life," esp. #18-40. Also read Grabbe! //end of notes 99.05// --- Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism Class Notes #06, 14 October 1999 By Tammy J. Jacobowitz 1. Show and Tell 1.1. Tammy: Follow-up about the Septuagint legends. She talked about the letter from Aristeas to Philocrates, an excerpt from Philo (On Moses 2.25-4.4) and a passage from the Talmud (Babylonian Talmud Megilla 9a). A few main points: 1.1.1. There is much debate about the authenticity and dating of Aristeas which purports to be by a Greek, writing very soon after the translation of the Septuagint. One factor in dating the Epistle is its allegorical interpretation of the Law -- if Philo is considered the first to do this, wouldn't he be after Philo? But then again, even if Philo were the first recorded Jewish allegorical interpreter, this would not necessarily mean he was the first. Again, it takes us back to the different approaches to understanding Philo's position in his age, and to understanding the wide range of perspectives within early Judaism. 1.1.2. There is wide variety amongst the three above sources as to the inspired nature of the translation. Philo is the most extreme: claims that the translators were possessed, wrote every word the same, that every Greek expression used was perfectly matched to the Chaldean. (Seems to be motivated to equalize the Greek with the Hebrew; to maintain that the Greek is just as good. Talmud: God gave them help/ advice, that they all had the same results -- except that they all changed 14 verses in order to avoid offending the King or presenting misleading info about Jewish theology. Aristeas: that they conferred with one another at the end of each day and mututally changed their translations to emerge with one version. 1.2. Chip: Reported on modes of execution in Roman Law. In the Theodotion Code (late 4th cent ce) -- an attempt to consolidate Roman legal material stretching many centuries back -- there seem to be 2 strata of punishment: 1) lower class: crucifixion or being thrown to beasts. 2) Roman citizens: capital punishment -- decapitation, or just being "beheaded" in society (losing property, exile). RAK: There were lots of suicides in Roman history because people were afraid of losing their property (for ther heirs, etc.) if convicted of charges of which they were accused. 2. "Other Resources" -- linked on RAK's page through our class page. We looked at the Philo page -- we should read Treu's article!! 3. Discussion of canon, inspiration, authoritativeness: difficulty of using these terms for the ancient world -- meant different things to different folks in different situations (also today!). *When Josephus talks about the 22 books, he talks about their relationship to Jewish claims of antiquity instead of to revelation, etc. Antiquity is an important point of polemic as a criterion for privilege in the ancient world (see Against Apion). Note that the Greek scriptures were translated over a period of a couple of hundred years by different people probably in different places. The term "Septuagint" basically refers to the Greek Pentateuch, while the other books/sections are often referred to as "Old Greek" (OG) -- thus the designation "LXX/OG" for the entire heterogeneous anthology. 4. Quick Review of LXX/OG and Latin Vulgate History Ptolemaic Times (up to the late 1st cent bce) LXX Proper -- 250-200 (3rd century) Ben Sira/Sirach (prob. written around 200 bce by a certain Joshua/Jesus, the grandfather of the person who translated it perhaps 70 or so years later. The grandson also writes a Greek prologue that mentions the problems of translation and makes a general reference to other respected Hebrew writings that had already been translated into Greek. Aristeas -- sometime between the original LXX and Josephus (who seems to be acquainted with the Aristeas materials). Most scholars date Aristeas before Philo. Roman Times (from late 1st cent bce) Philo -- mid 1st cent ce (Philo mostly uses the Pentateuch, plus a few other books -- is that because he did not have the rest? Because it did not exist or he just did not have access or he didn't think it as important/authoritative?) Paul (about the same time) -- makes much wider use of Greek Jewish scriptures in service of his Jewish eschatological message. Josephus (last quarter of 1st century ce) -- uses especially the more "historical" scriptural materials, plus other sources not subsequently included in the Jewish Bible. late 2nd cent. Melito of Sardis -- quotes Jewish scriptures widely, gives a list of books that is almost identical to the Jewish canonical list. Similarly Origen in the first half of the third century (but with some additional books as well). Around this time, Latin translations appeared (unclear whether they were Jewish or Christian translators). These "Old Latin" translations of Jewish scriptures were made from the available Greek. Many different ones were being produced. Around the year 400, Jerome is commissioned to make a more homogeneous Latin translation. He learns Hebrew, Greek, moves to Bethlehem. He mostly pays attention to the scriptural books accepted by his Jewish informants (much like Luther, later). Pope instructs him to include the traditional apocrypha as well; Jerome takes the existing OL versions and does superficial revisions. For Psalms, he does both a new translation from the Hebrew Bible and revises the Old Latin. Sidepoints: even 200 years before ce, there were thriving Jewish communities all over the place that we know very little about -- North Africa, Asia Minor, Greece, Parthia/Babylonia, etc. With regard to "Bible" as a collective term, the development of the large-scale codex in the 4th century ce was a major factor; before that, the focus was necessarily more on the smaller units (scrolls, small-scale codices). 5. Reading more about the Therapeutae in Philo (Some scattered notes I wrote down as we read through the passages): In his opening statements about the Therapeutae, it is hard to know what to make of Philo's assessments: he often writes in hyperbole and it is unclear if he means that there are many such communities generally or only in the Jewish world (loosely defined, of course). Chip's point: there were retirement villages throughout Egypt. In any event, Philo claims to describe a specific group in an identified locale (between the Mareotic Lake and the Mediterranean Sea, near Alexandria). (25) oracles: could be a generaly poetic term or God-spoken word different from laws. These people have a revelatory, literary and musical tradition. What does "allegorical writing" mean? Is is coded writing? Is Philo attributing his sense of allegorical to these people? "moasteries" - alone places; in isolation. They have both private and public holy places. _law_ as supreme RAK: probably a term for the Pentateuch. Philo never explicitly calls these people "Jews," but he makes several references that seem to require Jewish affiliation (e.g. section 64 -- Moses as law-giver. Or at the end, Philo's description of their ritual to reenact the Song of the Sea from Exodus 15). THey had no slaves -- like the Essenes (as described by Philo). Their assemblies: both at the end of each week and it seems, after every 7 weeks -- is this the holiday of Shavuot (The Feast of Weeks)? A type of Sabbatical year motif? Pentecost? Read to the end of the Therapeutae section. Next: compare the treatment of the Therapeutae and the Essenes. Start reading Jubilees and Enoch (samples of "apocalyptic"). //end of notes 99.06// [[Where are Notes 99.07, from 21 October?]] --- Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism Class Notes #08, for 28 October 1999 By DanIstrate Enoch Cycle = Enoch material -- includes 1, 2, & 3 Enoch - 1 Enoch is itself a library: The Book of the Watchers (1-36), The Book of Parables (or Similitudes) (37-71), The Book of the Heavenly Luminaries (or The Book of the Astronomical Writings) (72-82), The Book of Dream Visions (83-90), The Epistle of Enoch (91-107), and Another Book by Enoch [ch. 108]. - 2 Enoch, associated in name/title with 1 Enoch, but not that much connection between the two; apocalyptic; sounds like it preserves old traditions, though - 3 Enoch, written in Hebrew, preserved in Jewish circles; could preserve early material; it's more mystical than apocalyptic 1 Enoch 6 - the story of the Watchers (sons of God, angels) - sounds like Genesis 6:1-4, but with much more detail! Q: In his material about the Giants, is Philo interacting with Gen 6, with 1 Enoch 6, or with something else? RAK: Not certain. Philo's writings are not apocalyptic (he's probably coming out of a more "Sadduceean" context, so he would not be a fan of apocalypticism). Q: About varieties: Was there within Judaism, any known branch that had a feminine idea/figure of God (a feminine deity, such as personified wisdom)? RAK: There is not enough evidence to be conclusive, but it is plausible. This could be so because what usually goes on functionally is different from the official idealized version. In the Greco-Roman world there are female deities. Looking at the Jewish world at a functional level (at the level of who's doing what), we see that angels in the Jewish world do what lesser gods do in the Greco-Roman context. Eg: The 'wisdom' figure in Proverbs 8 ("wisdom" is a feminine noun in Hebrew -- hochma) is not quite a co-creator, but it is not far from that position. Q: Is there any known significance to the number 200 (this is the number of the angels who rebelled according to 1 Enoch)? RAK: Not definitely. It is interesting, though, that it is decimal, and not a m ultiple of 12/24. There is a variety of traditions about heaven (in connection with numbers): a 3-heaven scheme (2 Cor 12:2), a 7-heaven scheme, and a 10-heaven scheme (3 Baruch) -- the latter being decimal, of course. 1 Enoch 8 -- an aetiological account of sin and corruption. Azazel is listed first, though the leader of the Watchers in 1 Enoch 6 is named Semjaza; Semjaza's name comes up in ch. 8 also. Does this reflect different traditions of name lists for these angels? Is Azazel another name for Semjaza, their leader? Note the possibility of multiple traditions (see L. Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews). Q: How do we know what literary genres were used back then? For instance, if remote future generations want to find out what late 20th century society was like, but all their available sources are only some 'trashy' novels, what would they conclude? What if 1 Enoch, for example, is a representative of such a genre? RAK: We are not confident what we are talking about when we speak of "that time" (back then) -- 300-400 years is a long time; also, the aspects of location and language are debatable, and likewise, the issue of genre. Apocalypticism seems to have been popular for a while, but one could argue that all the apocalyptic writings came out of the same "publishing house." Digression: An interesting example of transmission within Judaism is the Damascus Document which was found (before the DSS fragments came to light) in two copies in the medieval Cairo geniza. How did it get there? Was the Qumran-type organization widely spread and did it survive that long? RAK believes that Timotheus' Letter might throw some light on the issue (see the "texts" section of RelSt 225 for a translation). Written about 800 CE, it states that, "about 10 years ago in the region of Jericho books had been found in a cave." It is plausible that one of these books was the Damascus Document, and copies of it ended up in the Cairo geniza (possibly as a claim to antiquity of a subset of Judaism -- the Karaite movement -- that was criticizing Rabbinic Judaism in the late 8th century CE and afterwards). Q: How do we know a writing is Jewish, and not influenced by Christianity, especially when the latter is responsible for preserving that writing? RAK: With 1 Enoch it is easier, for we have the DSS (fragments) of 1 Enoch which look much like the 15th-16th centuries manuscripts of the Ethiopic (Ge'ez) translation. In some documents, a Jewish substratum could usually be discerned, and sometimes Christian additions could be identified. However, caution needs to be exercised here, for the tendency exists to attribute too much to Christianity, and not realize how rich the world of Jewish thought was at the turn of the era. Concepts that look Christian (such as the Messiah being the Son of God) could very well fit within the pre-Christian Jewish thought world. On questions of definition and methodology, see: Smith, Jonathan Z. Map is not territory : studies in the history of religions. Leiden : Brill, 1978. (Series: Studies in Judaism in late antiquity. v. 23; Location: Van Pelt Library Call Number: BS540 .S62) -- also his Divine Drudgery, and other studies. Assignment: Sample Sirach Read/Sample Hodayot, Psalms of Solomon, and Odes of Solomon //end notes 99.08// --- Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism Class Notes #09, 04 November 1999 By Elizabeth M. Jackson Hymns and "Wisdom" Literatures Sirach (Wisdom of Joshua Ben Sira) Psalms of Solomon Odes of Solomon Hodayot A book of "Hodayot" (1QH) and various other Hymns/Psalms were found among the DSS, as well as biblical psalter copies. These indicate the importance of this type of material for those readers. The Wisdom of Ben Sira or Ecclesiasticus begins with a prologue by Joshua ben Sira's grandson which discusses the translation. This is one of the most serious commentaries on translation from antiquity. The prologue mentions three groups of other Greek translations: the Law, the prophets, and the rest of the books. Presumably, the Law refers to the Pentateuch. The category of prophets is ambiguous -- two different understandings of "prophets" are found in later listings: the Christian category of prophets focuses on Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve "Minor Prophets." The Jewish category calls these "latter prophets" and also includes "former prophets" such as Joshua, 1-2 Samuel and 1-2 Kings. In the Christian tradition, prophets tend to be seen in terms of predictions; in Jewish tradition, prophets tell the message of God's dealings with the chosen people. The Greek word profhths has both senses. Manuscripts: In addition to the Greek translation (probably done in Alexandria, 130-117 B.C.E.), there are numerous Hebrew fragments, at least five in the Cairo Genizah manuscripts, and one fragment in the Qumran caves (cave 5?) and another from Masada. (Masada lies south of Qumran, and held out against Roman forces in the first Jewish rebellion until 73, longer than Qumran and Jerusalem.) In the middle ages, Sadia mentions the Hebrew Ben Sira as a useful book, but apparently does not class it with scripture. Ben Wright argues that there are echoes of Ben Sira in rabbinic literature. Question: The prologue states that the translation is made for those who live within the law. What is the thrust of such a statement relative to varieties of Judaism in the period? There are no references to a particular book, so conclusions about what the law is must be inferred from the text. A common conclusion is that the writer is a teacher in Palestine. The address of "my children" would bear this out, and the description of Joshua ben Sira in the prologue could be made to support it. The law may refer to the Pentateuch, but specific definitions are difficult to make. In Ben Sira, there is a "seam" at Chapter 44. A new heading appears, marking a conceptual separation, and perhaps also a physical one. At this point, a historical survey of great people begins, including the lessons to be drawn from them. Some examples follow: Enoch and translation: According to the biblical tradition, Enoch walked with God and disappeared. Here, he is translated to paradise. Noah was just: "Noah" means consolation. This is probably word play, an implied etymology in a tradition of etymologies. A remnant surviving the flood: eschatological terms used, whether consciously or not, in a book which is not really eschatological. Covenants after the flood: In plural. Sometimes the covenant made with Noah appears as a more general covenant than that of Abraham or Moses, one made to all people. Noahic laws may describe what God expects of human kind generally, often with language like that in this passage. Abraham, father of may nations: as in Philo's word play, father of a multitude. (Philo also suggests the etymology, "father of a great noise.") Covenant established in the flesh: singular, probably circumcision. Found faithful in temptation: Probably offering to sacrifice Isaac. Keeping the law: Here before the law had been given to Moses. Could be a reference to Noahic laws or to the heavenly tablets. Keeping the law was important to different Jewish groups, and the law was interpreted broadly enough to include various grades of rituals. After Moses, there is a strong connection between Moses and the law. God's oath: Promise to Abraham often invoked for alleviation of suffering. From the river: One of the four in Eden? The Euphrates in the Greek. Chapter 45: Moses and the holy ones: Perhaps hagios in the Greek, kadosh in Hebrew? Through cultural and linguistic translations, hagios comes to mean saint (through Latin sanctus). It could refer to the angels. Analysis would require comparison with the new DSS sources. Such a change might influence the eschatological content of the passage. Aaron and the tribe of Levi: The importance of the priesthood in Sirach. Later, there is a eulogy for Simon the high priest (probably of the late third century). The author seems to be connected to the Jerusalem priesthood. There follows a long passage about Aaron and the priesthood in which God makes an everlasting covenant with Aaron. Phinehas son of Eleazar is third in glory: Moses Aaron, Phinehas? Aaron, Eleazar, Phinehas? An eternal covenant is made with Phinehas in the Pentateuch. Phinehas the priest who condemns the mixing of the sons of Israel and the daughters of Moab; he spears a copulating couple. David: Appears here chronologically out of place, perhaps through the theme of blessing. Chapter 46: Joshua son of Nun, but in Greek, Jesus the son of Nave. Perhaps the name Nave was changed to Nun to avoid the similarity between Nave and the Tetragrammaton, which differ only in the bottom stroke of the nun. However, if Nave is changed to the Tetragrammaton, the phrase strongly resembles the Christian phrase "son of God." This could be made to support the theory that Jesus Christ was not a historical figure, but a fictive or accidental creation. Research on the historical Jesus has driven this theory out of popularity. Joshua was great according to his name: The name means "God saves." In other literature, Joshua is the successor of Moses among the prophets; he overthrows the enemies of Israel, brings their inheritance, and stops the sun in the sky. Caleb: Appears in the hexateuch and leads Israel into the promised land after Moses. Chapter 47: The days of David: David appears again, with a eulogy on his acts. Solomon is wise and builds a temple: A summary of the tradition also in the biblical Psalms, Enoch, Jubilees, and Stephen's speech in the book of Acts. Riddles, perils, fame, canticles, proverbs, interpretation, magic, and copper mines are associated with Solomon. Solomon is brought down through his body, through women. Magic is not mentioned in this passage, but other sources associated both Solomon and Moses with magic, and Solomon with control over demons. In one story, Solomon gains mastery over the spirits which are sent to test him, and compels them to construct his building projects. Ephraim: symbolizes the northern kingdom that splits away. Mercy: Hesed, that is, loyalty to a covenant. It shares a common root with Hasidim. Jeroboam: rebelled against the taxes and public works program of Rehoboam. Chapter 48: Hezekiah (Ezechias): Makes the sun move backward according to Isaiah's orders to lengthen the king's life. Chapter 49: Josiah: Repentance and recovery of the law. David, Hezikiah, and Josiah all committed no sins. Judah: Saul does not appear here. Other kings are passed over. There is an allusion here to Nebuchadnezzar and the burning of Jerusalem. Ezekiel: The bones and the chariot appear in the book of Ezekiel. Zerubbabel: One of the last Davidic kings. He and Joshua the son of Jozadek come to symbolize the joining of king and priest (the two candlesticks in Zachariah). Nehemiah: is here but Ezra is not. Ezra was the restorer of the law after the fall of the city. Enoch: a return; Seth and Shem, and Abraham and Joseph glorified. Chapter 50: This is probably also a separate section. Simon son of Onias, high priest, is eulogized. Chapter 51: This prayer does not appear in all of the Greek manuscripts. It does appear separately in the Dead Sea Scrolls, not with Ben Sira, but in a collection of Psalms. Question: Could chapter 51 have been included in Ben Sira by a copyist because there was extra room on the end of the scroll? Sometimes extra space on a scroll is used for other material, but this is more common with the codex because the codex contains a fixed number of pages. With a scroll, the extra papyrus or leather could be cut off and attached to something else. Dating: The text was probably written around 200 bce, which would put the translation (by the author's grandson) in the second century bce. The family of Onias, and Simon who is eulogized in ben Sira, was a priestly family that may have resisted Seleucid efforts. Simon is understood to be a contemporary of Joshua ben Sira. Question: Why does Ben Sira refer to Nehemiah but not Daniel? The Book of Ben Sira is not particularly eschatological; perhaps the author was not interested in Daniel's eschatology. Perhaps both books were written near the same time. Question: Does Daniel praise the Hasidim in opposition to the Maccabeans? The evidence for this argument comes from chapters 11-12 , in the interpretation of the visions. Daniel was probably written before the Maccabeans were really successful. The Jewish community had various perspectives on the revolt. Some refused to fight on the Sabbath and were slaughtered. This lead to a change in halakic interpretation allowing for self-defense on the Sabbath. Some Jews went along with the Roman program; they are called sinners in Maccabean literature, probably for appearing to compromise religion, but they are clearly Jews. Organization of text: The section beginning with chapter 44 seems to be connected to the rest of Ben Sira. The rest is organized in separate elements, but not entirely clearly to modern eyes. The first section shows an inclination to personify wisdom. Question: Are the titles at the beginnings of the chapters in Sirach editorial, or are they translated from the manuscript? The headings for chapters 11 and 44 are in some Greek manuscripts. There is a textcritical question of variance in the manuscripts, as with the headings in the Psalms and the Song of Songs. Titles may have been added or abandoned by scribes, and those changes may not be possible to date, or even detect. A certifiably ancient document with a header would be good evidence. Instructions in scrolls for teachers are not unknown, but they may have been introduced at various times. There is a paper from the Dead Sea Scroll class on the positioning of blanks in the DSS, concluding that they sometimes have a dividing function, which addresses the question of format. This question is one that has been eclipsed by the study of content. Imanuel Tov is the expert on the relationship between presentation and subject in the DSS. Psalm 151, which is about David going out to slay Goliath, only appears in some Latin manuscripts and varies widely in the ancient traditions. It represents a good example of highly revised material. Psalms of Solomon: This appears in some Greek manuscripts among the deuterocanonical books. Alfred Rahlfs includes it in his two volume Greek Septuagint. It also has a Latin and Syriac history. Robert Wright (Temple) has done a great deal of work on the text of the Psalms of Solomon. Criteria for righteousness: Righteousness is judged by prosperity and progeny. This often leads to questions of why the righteous suffer. Some passages in the Psalms of Solomon are interpreted as referring to historical events, for example, Pompey's conquests of Palestine in 63 bce. One problem with this approach is that the book is a collection of psalms and, like other books of psalms and proverbs may not be the work of a single author or even a collection of contemporary work. The book belongs to a genera of collections. Historical references in Psalm 17: Psalm 17 begins, as is usual, with a paean of praise. It moves to hold God to his promises, and touches on sins and exile (perhaps, but not necessarily from Jerusalem), monarchy, despoil, David, the overthrow of Israel and the uprooting of the descendants. Is this Nebuchadnezzar? The changeover from Seleucid to Maccabean rule? A man alien to the race rises up against it -- this is associated with Psalm 8 and Pompey. However, the genera does not draw clear distinctions between history and apocalypse -- events are likely to be symbolic and ahistorical. Any historical content may not be identifiable. Question: In what language were the Psalms originally composed? The consensus is that the book was written in Hebrew and translated from Hebrew into Greek. The Syriac texts are of uncertain origin: although Syriac is more closely related to Hebrew, the translations sometimes more closely resemble the Greek. Dating: The texts have been dated by references interpreted to Pompey to about 63 bce. However, since the history of Parthians, the Bedouins, and much of Central Asia at the time is unknown, it may be impossible to clearly understand historical references. Question: When translations are made from Greek to Latin, is this in a Jewish context or a Christian one? This question is not asked often; usually such Latin texts are assumed to come from a Christian community. Fourth Ezra (Second Esdras in the Revised Standard Version), also known as the Latin Apocalypse of Ezra, exists in Latin but not in Greek or Hebrew. In 7:25 some versions refer to a 400 year millennium with a dying messiah. Others add "my son the messiah, Jesus." The text is accepted as a Jewish text with Christian influence, but it is not known when the translations was done, or when the emendations were made. Similarly, the Greek Testaments of the Patriarchs picks up some explicit Christian references. The reference in First John to the father, the son, and the holy spirit appears only in late manuscripts. According to one story, when Erasmus was editing the Greek NT, he couldn't find this passage in any available Greek manuscripts, and so he was not going to include it in his edition. Very quickly, Greek manuscripts were "discovered" and shown to him, so that he included the passage. Bart Ehrman's book Orthodox Corruptions of the Scriptures (NC Chapel Hill) proposes a model of textual emendations by orthodox believers to make the meaning of the text more explicit. Question: Is the phrase "my son the messiah" explicitly Christian? In the Psalms, David is called the son of God; he is often understood as the progenitor of the messiah. A more flexible perspective on Judaism could be created out of this sort of material. There is no explicit evidence for the phrase in Jewish writings, but similar language appears in the DSS. What do Christians create and what do they adapt? The doctrine of the trinity may itself be an adaptation. Philo writes that God is ineffable, but reveals himself in three ways: as king (theos), as sustainer (kyrios), and as law (nomos). When doctrine has it that Jesus is not created, and he is identified with Wisdom, what do you do with a passage that says Wisdom was begotten? Begotten is understood to explain a relationship, not a temporal sequence. It is useful to look for this sort of drive behind a reading of scripture. Probably very little of Christianity was not developed from somewhere else. Question: Why is the millennium at 400 years in 4 Ezra 7? Most texts use a figure around 1000 (mille is Latin for 1000) instead; this is unusual. Other variations in numbers include three/seven/ten heavens, and 70/72 nations, translators of LXX, or disciples sent out by Jesus! Question: How accurate is the dating of the first year "of the Lord" (AD = anno domini)? If we accept most traditions, Jesus was born under Herod the Great, who dies around 4 bce. How much before that? A recent article in Lingua Franca on the star of Bethlehem has conjectures by different astronomers. One argument is for 6 bce, another for 5 bce. It depends what sort of thing you are looking for, a comet, a meteor shower, etc. Even dating by Herod, which seems like the clearest information, is problematic. How long before Herod's death? And who would have recorded Jesus' birth? In pre-industrial societies, people often don't keep track of their ages. The earliest of Jesus' followers seem to have focussed on his death and resurrection. The census described in Luke's nativity narrative took place in 6 ce, as far as the evidence shows. //end of notes 99.09// --- Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism Class Notes #10, 11 November 1999 By Dorothea Mueller When does classical Judaism achieve the forms that survive today in orthodox Judaism? This question is hard to answer due to a severe lack of knowledge concerning different aspects of early Judaism. An important landmark in the development of classical Judaism, however, is the compilation of the two Talmudim (Palestinian and Babylonian). It is associated with the establishment of the authority of a group called "the rabbis"/"ha- rabbanim," who are seen as the founding fathers of classical rabbinic Judaism. The Talmudim are rabbinic sources edited in the 4th-6th century (Palestinian Talmud seems the earlier), which create an ideal world built on a particular perception and interpretation of Jewish law and its ideas of purity. (Some earlier Midrashim already show the same ideals.) A whole historic construct tries to identify the origins of rabbinic law with 2nd century figures, e.g. Rabbi Akiva or Jehuda ha- Nasi, and the developments they brought about. But only one single tractate in the Talmud itself, Pirqe Avot, tries to trace back earlier traditions. The understanding rabbinic Judaism shows of its own history is a construct that often does not correspond with other information (archaeological, etc.) from the same period. [[Excursion. The Persian period in Palestine began around the year 539 BCE and is associated with Cyrus the Great. Apparently during his reign, permission was granted to the Jews to return to Judaea from their exile in Babylon. Those who returned struggled for a purification of their civil and cultic life (e.g. by means of the prohibition of mixed marriages). This period is usually identified with the work of Ezra. It also stands for the beginning of something that can properly be called "Judaism" since from this time on one can see some kind of continuity in the development of Jewish religious thought.]] Rabbinic sources represent only one of many different aspects of Judaism, which existed in numerous varieties throughout antiquity. Their value for historic research is often doubted. This skepticism has been emphasized by Jacob Neusner and his recently developed approach to rabbinic scholarship. Neusner accomplished to open up Jewish scholarship to the awareness of all sorts of constructs in rabbinic literature which make it difficult to use rabbinic writings as historic sources. Among other contemporary scholars, who are aware that the rabbinic sources are partly contradictory and often not very trusworthy in terms of their historical value for the earlier periods, Lester Grabbe is one of those who treats the material rather carefully. The final emergence of classical rabbinic Judaism seems to have been visible by the 5th century CE. At that time, however, it probably represented only a minority among Jews and seemingly had far less authority and prestige than one might expect from its influence on later periods. Around the 9th/10th century, it had to struggle with the problem of the Karaites who rejected rabbinic authority and wanted to return to a purer form of Judaism. Another phenomenon emerging in the Middle Ages was the splitting up of rabbinic Judaism into Ashkenazim (especially Germany and eastern Europe) and Sephardim (especially Spain). [Excursion. A short discussion on the numbering of Greek manuscripts in critical editions of Jewish scriptures, illustrated by RAK's story of discovering and identifying a fragmentary Greek manuscript of Joshua from around the 5th century ce.] There is no evidence for a single point of time at which Christianity can be said to have split off from Judaism. Jerome mentions the existence of "Jewish-Christians" in the late 4th century, while Tertullian opposes them already in the 2nd century. Justin Martyr's Dialogue with Trypho the Jew clearly refers (in a not unsympathetic manner) to Jews who believe in Jesus in the mid 2nd century. HODAYOT (1QH). "Hodayot" is the Hebrew term for the Cave 1 Hymnbook among the Dead Sea Scrolls. (Cave 1, as well as cave 11, is not located directly at the ruins of Qumran but contains better preserved materials than the Qumran caves themselves.) The parts of the damaged manuscript of the hymns were put together by the original team of researchers who worked on the DSS materials for years, but more recent publications show a reordering of the hymns (following Puech's research) and give both the old and the new numbers for columnation. (See e.g.the new edition by Garcia-Martinez or that by Geza Vermes.) It is not clear whether the hymns and songs from the DSS were actually sung in harmonies, i.e. in different tonal levels. Philo's description of the Therapeutae and their melodious singing might suggest that the Dead Sea sect also sang its hymns. R.Altmann (on the ORION electronic discussion group) argues that the blanks in the text of the scrolls (see edition by Garcia-Martinez) were significant for the musical intonation of the DSS poetry. The early conjecture that the Hodayot or at least some of them might have been written by the Teacher of Righteousness seems to be questioned by many scholars today. Some of the Hodayot reveal personal nuances, which could be due to the imitation of biblical psalms or the actual integration of biblical material in the Dead Sea poetry. The authors of the Dead Sea hymns especially mention David in connection with the biblical psalms. They see him in the tradition that associates him with psalms and songs, i.e. with the composition and musical oralization of poetry. One of the motifs that appears in the DSS materials is the dualism of "cleanness" and "uncleanness" but it is not clear whether the two are seen as formal categories or whether a distinction is made between moral and ritual impurity. It is possible that some of the DSS writings represent a step towards this distinction that is made clearly in later sources. //end notes 99.10// --- Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism Class Notes #11, 18 November 1999 By Uri Cohen As a response to a question at the beginning of class Dr. Kraft mentioned that the Dead Sea Scrolls took as long as they did to come out because of that fact that the project was severely underestimated in reference to time and size of the "team," as well as reference to money. Because of this there were many monetary and logistical problems that had to be overcome before the works could be published. We visited 4Q184 "Wiles of the Wicked Woman" off of Alan Humm's website. It explains the beginnings of all paths to evil. We then visited Horoscopes, 4Q186. People at this time were very pre-destination minded, though how this horoscope relates to the destination is unclear. The body seems to have been divided into parts, though exactly how this is, is also unclear, such as descriptions of positions and their relationships to the parts of the body, such as the nails. 4Q561 -- Eyes between clear and dark -- a physical description of what seem to be non-physical characteristics. The Elect of God Text, 4Q534 Knows of three books, prudence, visions, he will live to old age. Wisdom will extend far, antagonists will fail, he is the chosen one of God. His work is like taht of the watchers. A note of interest is that there are 2 other descriptions like this -- the Epistle of Titus in the Acts of Paul (a physical description of Paul), and the Apocalypse of Elijah (only exists in Armenian; the antichrist is described very much like this as well), Perhaps this style of description can be found elsewhere as well. They had pretty much the same Zodiak as we do. There isn't a lot of Zodiak-related material, but there are some that are interesting, including the fact that Zodiak-related images can be found on the floors of some synagogues in Palestine from the early medieval period. Wisdom of Solomon This is a long book, in poetic form. It is an apocryphal work in Greek. We found it on the web at http://www.ht.umich.edu, off of Alan Humm's page in the "Bibles" section. The book is attributed to Solomon. The first five chapters have images similar to some in the Dead Sea Scrolls, as well as to Christian understandings of Jesus -- the motif of the righteous man who is persecuted. This seems to be a template for a righteous person. Second-Isaiah is similar with the "suffering servant" idea. Righteousness is good and characterizes the child of God. The righteous person avoids those who are not righteous, considering them to be "base." People test him with insults. This picture is startling as seen through the eyes of the church. The book is believed to have been authored in Greek as a sermonic work. The latter part is a sophistocated sermon on the Exodus. This doesn't reflect the translation of the LXX to the extent we might expect, although WisdSol was written after LXX Exodus. The book was probably written in the late 1st Century BCE in Alexandria by a Jew. Wisd 2.24 mentions the devil -- possibly the Greek word for devil is a translation of the Hebrew "satan" or "adversary"; by this time there seems to be a concept of the devil as an independent being. This idea may have come from Persia. Scott pointed out that the word "diabolos" is mentioned 22 times in the Greek Jewish scriptures, but he didn't remember the history. The righteous man is seen as getting clobbered. Then followed a discussion of the fact that Wisdom is seen as feminine. Woman is used as a philosophical category by Philo. Here wisdom is used in relation to living life the "correct" way. It is rampant in the literature of this time. Widsom protected Adam, Cain, Abel, Noah. A hymn to Wisdom exists. In Exodus, Wisdom entered Moses, helped the people to escape from Egypt. Ex. 19.18 The elements change -- blindness occurs, as the Plague of Darkness is recorded. The elements change places with each other, as in some Greek "scientific" speculations. God has glorified the people Israel, not neglected them. Did people care who wrote the texts? If the claim was that a great person (Enoch, Solomon) wrote about it, then yes, they probably did care. If authorship by such people is not claimed, then it is probably not so important who it was that wrote the material. A similar phenomenon occurs with reference to the Jesus traditions. He is talked about the same way, by attributing the accounts to famous early Christian authors. The WisdSol material is thought to have been written in Alexandria because of its more "philosophical" content. Some of the Odes of Solomon were seen at www.abc.org/odes.htm Not all of the Odes are explicitly Christian. We don't know whether or not some of this material came from a Jewish source. Ode 10: Parallelism is used -- typical of Semitic poetry. Note how a figure like the Messiah/Christ is described as conquering the world. Looks like a Christ figure... salvation as key. Is it possible that this could have come from a Jewish background with this very Christian sounding language? Ode 36: "I rested on the spirit of the Lord" -- Syriac says "she". A mystical descent is described. Christ talks about his ascent, he is called son of man and of God (referred to as Light, son of God). This doesn't sound necessarily Christian, since the son of man aspect is not a particularly Christian notion and is also found in pre-Christian Jewish sources. The book doesn't seem to say that it is by Solomon, but it is attributed to him anyway. Some of it sounds very much like good Christian hymns. Fourth Maccabees There are 4 books with the title "Maccabees". 1 and 2 have to do with the Maccabean revolt. The Third has nothing to do with the Maccabees but deals with an Alexandrian problem of a different time. The fourth book is a treatise that argues that reason subdues and is more powerful than the passions, using the story of the seven Jewish "martyrs" and their mother. In the story, each son is told to denouce Judaism but refuses and dies as a consequence. Thus reason (i.e. faithfulness to God and the law) is better than passion (i.e. holding on to life). All of this is presented in a philosophical framework. The Greek of the book is often very hard to translate... very specific torture devices are referred to. This text became widely used in Christian circles because of references to martyrdom, death for God. It was also widely used in Jewish circles, as it mentions faith until death. For next time we are told to read the intros to the sources mentioned in the syllabus (Fall 1992) to get a sense of what is there. //end notes 99.11// --- Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism Class Notes #12, 02 December 1999 Daniel A. Gabriel 1. Report on Meeting of American Academy of Religious / Society of Biblical Literature -- The annual meeting took place in Boston during the weekend (Sat - Tues) preceding Thanksgiving, with over 8000 people in attendance. One of the sessions at the SBL conference included discussion of where Dead Sea Scrolls research stands at present, with a particular focus on the cemeteries which have been located at Qumran. The main cemetery found thus far contains over 1100 graves, less than 50 of which have been dug thus far. Most of the skeletons recovered from that site have been identified as male, although there has been much discussion as to whether some of them might have, in fact, been women. It had been suggested that DNA tests be employed to resolve this question, but this may not work because of the age of the bones. For bones this old, even Carbon 14 testing is not always effective in gathering information, and at present, determinations of the sex of the persons are made by measuring the pelvises, height, and similar physical features. This main cemetery is also interesting because the graves and bones found here had been oriented in a north-south position (most heads to the south), whereas the bodies at other, smaller, adjacent cemeteries did not have graves all organized one direction. The adjacent cemeteries seem clearly to include bones of women and children, which has been taken to challenge the idea that the nearby community was composed of male ascetics. The report in Boston claimed that the main adjacent cemetery was not ancient, but was a bedouin burial site no more than two centuries old! One major problem hindering research into these questions is that fact that the Israeli government will not, at present, allow more graves to be dug, out of deference to the Orthodox Israelis who oppose this practice on Religious grounds. 2. Revolt against Trajan Other noteworthy sessions at the SBL conference dealt with Philo, the Greco Roman world, and the tearing down of the temple of idolaters as recorded in the Testament of Job. It was suggested that the description of this destruction may be a reference to the aftermath of the revolt against Trajan. This revolt occurred in approximately 115 CE, and ended with the apparent destruction of the Egyptian Jewish community. In fact, this destruction was so complete that Modrzejewski, in his work Jews of Egypt (written in French, recently translated to English), who traced the history of Jewish communities in Egypt ended his book with their annihilation in 116 CE. In addition to declaring that Jews were destroyed at this time, he argued that Jewish-Christians were also killed at the conclusion of this revolt. As a result, he believed that the first Egyptian Christians formed independently of Jewish-Christians. Archaeological evidence for the destruction of the Jewish Community can be found in the tax receipts at Edfu, a town in Egypt which was located far from Alexandria and other centers of power. Jews had been compelled to pay a special tax, and so it can be determined that when the tax receipts end, so did the Jewish community. Excavations and tests have revealed that the tax receipts ended in approximately 115 CE. The fact that Edfu is off the beaten path, yet still saw the destruction of its Jewish community in this revolt indicates how widespread the massacre of the Egyptian Jews may have been. Although the revolt had a major effect on Jews in Egypt, it seems to have had little effect on the Palestinian Jewish community. Nevertheless, one may be skeptical that such a major event could not have had cultural and political implications for Jews throughout all of the Roman empire. The revolt of the Egyptian Jews against Trajan is recorded by few historians of the time, but those who do write about these events all label it as a great crisis. One writer claims that 500,000 people were slaughtered in the revolt, and other even record that the Jews were initially successful before finally succumbing to the power of Rome. 3. Sibylline Oracles In the 4th century BCE there were various female oracles in the Greek world representing early Greek traditions of about divine revelation. Unlike other oracles who spoke for themselves, these women spoke ecstatically so that their utterances needed to be interpreted by their associated priests. It is told that they would sit in stools which were placed above cracks in the earth out of which certain gases would be emitted. This contributed to the air of mystery which surrounded them. The oracles were so prominent in their time that they were intertwined in cultural structures and were compiled and transmitted through the ages since. When the Romans took over the Greek world they placed great value on the proclamations of the oracles. This respect was so great in fact that the oracles were collected in written form and an office of the Keeper of Sibylline Oracles was established in Rome. This person was charged with protecting/maintaining the collection and consulting them when needed. Before undertaking major decisions such as war, the oracles were usually consulted by the Roman leaders. The original collection perished in a fire in 82 bce, and subsequent efforts to restore it encouraged various developments including the production of the surviving materials by that name, which clearly have come through Jewish and Christian filters. 4. Jewish (and Christian) Sibylline Oracles Over time, Jewish writings and ideology were interspersed with and/or created in imitation of the traditional utterances of the oracles. Similarly, Christian materials were also interjected into the Sibylline collections and copies resulting in the surviving (Christian) Sibylline Oracles. It is not clear how much, if any, of the "official" Roman collection(s) have survived in these materials. Collection of such writings had already become a literary tradition by the time the Jewish and Christian influences were added. When examining this collection in John Collins' translation (in Charlesworth) it will be evident that certain sections are particularly Christian in outlook while others can be seen as primarily Jewish and still others as not obviously reflecting either tradition. 5. Sampling the Extant Sibylline Oracles John Collins translated and edited the collection of Sibylline material which is found in Charlesworth: Book 1. Prologue: a connection is made to Jewish traditions. Line 324: there is cryptic letter imagery about Jesus' name. The numerical value of the name of Jesus in Greek may have special meanings when the sum of all the letters is computed. This reference to Jesus' name is a clear example of Christian contributions to the Sibylline material. Book 5. This book is much less Christian than the first book and there is only one "probable" Christian reference that can still be found (lines 256-259). Of course, Jewish and Christian interests often coincided. The Return of Nero ("Nero redivivus"): 5.214ff highlights the apocalyptic and eschatological aspects of this collection. Some significant references in this line include: 5.214: Corinth was an important shipping port in antiquity, and a major city in Greece 5.218: Bronze -- Nero is said to have had bronze tools with which to cut out the rocks near Corinth 5.222: Cutting off the roots of three heads -- this may refer to the three empires and be an allusion to Daniel 7.8 and/or other apocalyptic traditions (e.g. 4 Ezra, Revelation) --"three empires" is a common theme in Jewish and Christian eschatology. On Egypt, see e.g. 5.179ff: this section contains a mixture of geographical-historical identifications and condemnation 5.52ff already refers to calamaties in Egypt Some noteworthy references in this section include: 5.53: Isis was the most famous goddess for Greco-Roman Egyptians as evidenced by the statues erected to her throughout the land. Many of these images were defaced by Christians and Muslims in later eras. She is said to have had phallic symbols erected in honor of her murdered husband, Osiris, and doubtless also connected with fertility issues in the "mystery religion" that is called by their names. 5.56: Mention of the Nile River -- its flooding was crucial to agriculture and consequently to life in Egypt 5.88: Alexandria is mentioned as part of Egypt (but the text seems corrupt). This is unusual as Alexandria thought of itself as an independent city-state under Rome and ruling Egypt, but not as a part of Egypt. There was a sense of pride at being an "Alexandrian," and this title carried status in the Greco-Roman world. As a result people who could do so usually referred to themselves as Alexandrians and did not identify with Egypt as such. 6. Oral Exam - We will be examined on our knowledge of the material pertinent to the course, and not simply for knowing specific texts such as Grabbe. That is, not all material covered on the exam will necessarily be found in the specific texts which we bought or used for the course; one point in such an exam is to test the scope and limits of our knowledge of the overall subject matter, obtained from whatever sources (including class discussions and the minutes!). - The minutes which have been recorded by students are being loaded onto the website after Dr. Kraft has had a chance to edit them (be forewarned that he may have made some corrections or additions to your minutes, so if they are not exactly as you submitted them, do not be too surprised). We will be responsible for the material that was covered in class as recorded in the minutes as well as material in Grabbe's books. - The oral exam is generally administered after a student has had his/her paper returned to him/her and has had a chance to review Dr. Kraft's questions and comments. The subject matter and approach taken in one's paper are topics that may also be expected to be discussed in the oral. - We are permitted to retake the oral exam if we (or Dr. Kraft) are not satisfied by our performance the first time, and would like the opportunity to review other parts of the material that we may not have studied initially. - It will not be a "rote memory" test for dates, data, etc. (although memory will certainly be crucial to a successful performance!). Relational information about various events may be important (knowing the order of major movements and texts may be relevant), but specific dates are usually not -- except for a few obvious "pegs" such as the Maccabean/Hasmonean uprisings around 165 bce and the destruction of the second Temple in 70 CE. 7. Research Paper - The paper is graded based upon how the student deals with data that has been collected. - In addition, methodological selfconsciousness will be an important factor. One should attempt to demonstrate an understanding of where assumptions have been made in the material which is collected, and which assumptions are being made in the course of this research. One should be careful in dealing with such assumptions and Dr. Kraft will be alert to the ways in which the papers show their awareness. Clear definitions are basic to successful communication and consistent treatment. - Dr. Kraft often reads a research paper and permits students to add comments or an appendix dealing with certain problems in greater detail or with more sophistication. He has, on occasion, asked people to rewrite parts or all of a paper, but it is more likely that one would be asked to add a section rather than to do a rewrite. 8. Hanukkah The word Hanukkah is literally derived from the words Hannukkat ha bayeet which means "dedication of the house," referring to the dedication of the Temple which was undertaken by the Maccabees after defeating the Seleukids and their supporters around 165 bce. The Seleukid ruler, Antiocus IV Epiphanes, had ordered a Greek deity's statue to be erected in the Temple, and after reconquering the Temple, the Hasmoneans needed to clean and rededicate it to remove this impurity. Following victory in the revolt, the Hasmonean dynasty ruled Palestine for about 100 years until Rome took over with the arrival of Pompey in 63 bce. John Hyrcanus, the most famous Hasmonean king, who ruled from 135-104 bce, is a hero of Josephus, and has come to be an icon of this dynasty. Some people saw the Hasmoneans as having betrayed their own cause, as they merely set up a kingdom in place of the one which they had rejected. Rather than restore the legitimate and traditional High Priests to their positions, they took this role for themselves. Although they came from priestly backgrounds themselves, their were not from the lineage of Zaddok, the family of priests that occupied the High Priesthood at the time of the uprising. The designation "Hasmonean" (family name, clan) is used in Semitic sources and the name "Maccabean" is found in Greek sources. There is no mention of the holiday of Hanukkah in the rabbinic Mishna (or, so far, in the Dead Sea Scrolls), but it is discussed in the Gemara. 9. Books of Maccabees The holiday ostensibly commemorates the miracle of a single day's worth of oil for lighting the lamps in the Jerusalem Temple lasting for eight days. However, this legend is not found at all in the books of the Maccabees! The first book of Maccabees discusses the uprising in the context of the history of the Greek Empire from the time of Alexander until the accession of John Hyrcanus in 135 bce. The second book focuses on the immediate background and the uprising itself, including the dismantling and storage of the Temple implements to protect them from being defiled. Third Maccabees has nothing to do with these events but deals with an earlier problem in Alexandria! Fourth Maccabees uses the Maccabean "martyrs" mentioned more briefly in 2 Maccabees as subject of a treatise on reason controlling passions. //end of notes 99.12// --- Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism Class Notes #13, 09 December 1999 by Dwight Singer Introduction to Chip Gruen's ongoing graduate project -- display of the available parallel column Greek and Hebrew (unpointed, at present) texts of the Pentateuch (the project will include other books of the Hebrew Bible at a later date). The texts were prepared during the past two decades by the CATSS (Computer Assisted Tools for Septuagint/Scriptural Studies) project and can be accessed through RAK's home page under CCAT Gopher, Religious Texts. RAK indicated that the Hebrew text is the BHS3 text and the Greek text is the Rahlfs text (to be modified to the Gottingen text where it exists). He also distinguished between diplomatic vs. eclectic texts. The first approach selects the best (or most useful) actual manuscript and provides variants in a textual apparatus while the second choses from the various readings in the manuscripts (plus hypothetical reconstructions when needed) and recreates what is thought to be the oldest recoverable text, with the ideal of recovering the original. The Greek text that Chip is using is eclectic, while the Hebrew is diplomatic (the Leningrad codex). The presentation of the project also included some discussion of the format of the larger CATSS project and sources that could be accessed in conjunction with that project. Review of the course in preparation for the final commenced. Throughout the class RAK sought to allay student frustration/dread(?) over the vast amount of material from this period -- in view of the impending oral exam. He will examine how far each student's knowledge goes, what each student does not know, in order to foster continued learning and familiarity with the material. The review began with an extended line of questioning concerning the various groups within Judaism during the Hellenistic Era. RAK's questions were formulated to encourage students to be self-conscious about their methodology. He mentioned that Marcel Simon's little book on Jewish sects deals briefly with varieties of Judaism beyond those mentioned by Josephus. He asked if anyone knew who the "Hemerobaptists" were. Apparently, from their name, they baptized daily. He admitted that this group is quite obscure, along with several other named groups. He began a series of questions on the Samaritans in relation to Judaism in the period. What did Josephus think? What information do we have outside Palestine (location where we know the Samaritans were) regarding not just the Samaritans but also "Jews" as a designation (however we may classify Samaritans)? In the West we know Jews lived in Asia Minor (Ephesus and other cities mentioned). In the East, in Babylon, we know very little. Christian anti-heresy authors sometimes mention Jewish sub-groups, sometimes including "Samaritans." It appears that some Samaritans may have lived in a Graeco-Roman community on the island of Delos. The "geographical survey" of locations of Jews and especially Samaritans leads us to the awareness of the difficulty of identification in the world outside of Joesphus' Palestine, where there are no known standard "labels" for the various varieties of Judaism. RAK supplied the general illustration of Alexandria, which though in Egypt did not consider itself as Egyptian. Josephus in Against Apion "took a swipe" against Apion for claiming to be an Alexandrian because he was actually (says Josephus) an Egyptian. RAK further observes that in Alexandria, where we know Jews lived, nevertheless, we do not know if Pharisees, Sadducees, or Essenes had communities/synagogues there. What label would you put on Philo? This question initiates the next extended line of questioning. Again, RAK's interrogation forces self- consciousness in methodology. This is evidenced in his follow-up question: What would you base your answer on? Other relevant matters that would help us in attempting to "label" Philo: What does he tell about himself? What is his view of eschatology and resurrection (noting the reported difference in views between Pharisees and Sadducees)? Is he concerned about the law (but this question would not be too helpful since it would be unusual to find any Jew unconcerned about the law)? How he interpreted the law would be the issue that might better distinguish between groups. RAK then focused the class's probings. He notes the Pharisees interest in eschatology and the absence of it in Philo (he "stifles" eschatology). Thus, Philo probably should not be labeled a Pharisee -- at least not of the eschatological sort. What about Sadducee? We assume, on the basis of Josephus' accounts as well as others, that Sadducees were closely associated with the Temple in Jerusalem. However, Philo pays little attention to the Temple in Jerusalem except in the Embassy to Gaius (where the threat to Temple sanctity is central), the treatment of "special laws" (reflecting Pentateuchal passages; see below), and a few other passing references. Could he have been associated with the Jewish Temple in Egypt in Heliopolis/Leontopolis? He also does not explicitly mention this Temple, although it is likely that he would have known about it. RAK asks the class to consider also what others may have said about whether Philo was associated with the Jerusalem Temple. Josephus says that Philo's brother Alexander (father of Tiberius Julius Alexander) donated the silver and gold for nine "gates" of the Jerusalem Temple (War 5.[3.]205). Philo alludes to pilgrimages to the Temple (Special Laws 1.69, in a lengthy passage playing on Pentateuchal references to "the holy place" where the priests are active, festivals are observed, etc.). Thus, we may conclude that Philo was quite conscious of the Jerusalem Temple. Moreover, that the Jews of the Graeco-Roman Period sent an annual tax contribution to the Temple further suggests that he (as all Jews) would at least be well aware of the Temple and its functions. Indeed, most of what is known about the Sadducees in Palestine is "tied to the Temple." But Philo's failure to give any special attention to the Jerusalem Temple suggests that he doesn't fit the (artificial?) stereotype of a Sadducee. A question arose from the class concerning the association of the Sadducees with the Jewish state. RAK asks: Can such an association be extended to other locations (leaving open the possibility that Sadducees may be found outside Palestine)? We do not have any data, but RAK contends that guessing about what the Sadducees may have done in other places is not bad, for it keeps the researcher open-minded. RAK notes that Sadducees are mentioned in later centuries by Christian writers. Is this a frozen polemic or an actual group? In addition, should we associate the sons of Zadok mentioned in the 10th-12th century copies of the Damascus Document with the Sadducees? RAK's answer: they do not fit with Josephus' description. However, is a survival/revival of the group possible? The discussion moved to the consideration of changes within communities. In understanding those groups that have lived on, how have they transformed themselves? The DSS (Dead Sea Scrolls) were the next area of discussion. RAK: Who left us the scrolls? Student queries: Do you mean what group is responsible for them? RAK points out that the question assumes homogeneity of origin. RAK notes that the composers of the Damascus Document sound more like the Essenes of Josephus and Philo than like other groups (perhaps by default), but would they seem like the same group as those that copied the 10th-12th century CD manuscripts? The different editions of CD illustrate the "great dilemma," i.e., how do we understand the changes within communities over time. How much change can go on in a group without destroying the meaning of our labels? In different times and locations is the group the same? Let us consider the DSS community and assume it was one group. We may note changes in some concepts, e.g., the Messiah. Can we say that the group remained the same within such development? RAK observes that Jewish vs. Christian scholars have often come from different perspectives in attempting to answer such a question. A Jewish "lever" for understanding could be continuity of Halakah while that of the Christian might be eschatology (to oversimplify matters!). Today we struggle to find balanced ways of approach to recreate the most historically believable situation. Digression to exam concerns and another challenge concerning self- conscious methodology. RAK alerts us that we have elementary decisions to make regarding the vast amount of material. The challenging issue: Whom do you trust? We may consider the bones at Qumran (cf. class #12). Is the discrepancy over the reported length of the spike in one report from an "expert" (e.g. 2 1/2 vs. 3 inches), any reason to dismiss all other arguments of that particular scholar? How can we identify with assurance the difference between female and male skeletons? We are dependent upon the work of others. RAK's lesson in this covers one of his pedagogical goals: How do you do research? / How do you use another's research? (Thus, we need to be self-conscious of our methodology.) RAK concludes. For the assumed DSS community, as for most early Judaism of which we are aware, and to some extent even for the Judaism that became "classical," eschatology is central, pervasive. Eschatology also became a problem for early Christianity. So we are brought back to the issue of change within communities. The "scroll people" (assuming that they did not live on) did not make an effective adjustment. Christian Jews did, however. They marginalized eschatology. Rabbinic Judaism also adjusted. Eschatology tended to become an echo in the liturgy, for most. Returning to previous discussion: did the Sadducees have a significant eschatology? RAK thinks not. What about an individual like Philo? Philo did not voice any significant eschatological views. He may not have been happy with what was voiced by others. A final comment focuses upon Paul, a rabid Jewish eschatologist in contrast to Philo). RAK appreciates Paul, while not necessarily agreeing with him, for on the basis of Paul's writings it is possible to predict Paul's responses to issues even if he might not address them directly. To some extent that can also be done with Philo. Unfortunately, such opportunities are rare in historical scholarship, and we are often left in the dark about things we would like to know. [Scribal note: Thanks for your flexibility in allowing us to work (on course requirements) at a pace slower than that of the academic schedule. Response: That way I can legitimately expect more! I look forward to reading your research papers and discussing it all with you as an end event of sorts.]] //end of 1999 class notes//