Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism
Class Notes #01, 09 SEPTEMBER 1999 
by Jeffrey Gaillard <gaillard@sas.upenn.edu>

Syllabus/Bibliography, etc., are located on Dr. Kraft's homepage:
http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/rs/rak/kraft.html [unfortunately, we were
unable to access the materials for projection in class]

Vocabulary Alert [see the electronic glossary to RelSt 002]: 
"Eschatological" = "relating to the study of last things," not only
personal (death and its results) but also more general and even cosmic
("Messiah," judgment, end destiny of humankind, end of the world, etc.),
frequently communicated by means of "apocalyptic" (revelatory) writings or
reports. Much of the surviving evidence from early Judaism reflects
eschatological orientation.

Requirements:  Oral exam (cumulative) of about 30 minutes will be required
for each student at the end of the class (unless other arrangements are
requested), which will count for about 1/3 of course grade. 

Research paper 10-15 pages (up to 5000 words), topic to be cleared with
Dr. Kraft, preferably a comparative analysis. A 5-10 minute summary may
be requested for presentation in class. 

For Lester Grabbe's two volumes, which apparently are now out of print,
discounts are available through the CBD catalog
(http://www.christianbook.com). For other suggested readings see the
post-class memo to the class list (e.g. M.Jaffee's book on Early Judaism).

Definitions and Chronological Distinctions:

"Intertestamental Period" -- from the last of the "Old Testament" (OT)
writings until the beginnings of Christianity.

"Second Temple Period," subsequent to the destruction of the "First
Temple" (ca. 960 BCE-587/6 BCE, begun by David and Solomon in
Jerusalem; a "cultic" development in the "history of Israel") is the
period from about 516 bce (return from exile) to 70 ce (first revolt
against Rome). This is a properly "Jewish" (Judahite) Temple.

"Greco-Roman Period," beginning with Alexander the Great (died 323 bce) 
until Constantine the Great (for easy memorization, the Council of Nicea
in 325 ce is a convenient terminus). The Roman Emperor Constantine has his
"vision" in 311/313 CE, which results in the Christain religion becoming
"tolerated" (legal) for the first time. Western historical
conventions call the subsequent period of (eastern) Roman history 
the "Byzantine Period" (with Constantinople/Byzantium as the main city).

Digression on Pliny the Younger (nephew of the famous naturalist Pliny) 
who became governor of Bithynia around 112 CE under the Roman ruler
Trajan, when he encountered problems with the Christians, he sought
counsel from Trajan, and the correspondence is preserved.

Basic Focus of the Course: 1. Pre-Rabbinic Jewish Evidence
                           2. Alexander of Macedon to Emperor Hadrian

Highly Recommended, excellent reference source is "ABD" = Anchor Bible 
Dictionary, six volumes (1992).

Comments on Primary Sources:

Josephus, born 37 CE, right after the execution of Joshua/Jesus. Writes
three major works, the biggest one, "The Antiquities of the Jews," which
consist of twenty "books," or more accurately twenty scrolls/volumes,
beginning with creation and extending to almost the end of the first
century CE.  An earlier work of seven scrolls is "The Jewish War." 

Philo of Alexandria was an older contemporary of Josephus, perhaps around
50 years old at the time of Josephus' birth, who left us many volumes of
his interpretations of Jewish scriptures, especially the Pentateuch (the
first five books, "of Moses"). Philo is a master of
allegorical/psychological interpretation. 

-Does not offer much "historical" information;
-A lingering question for scholars, was Philo a maverick or typical of 
Jewish thought in Alexandria (and the Greek world in general)?
-Becomes a "Christian father" (many Christian interpreters loved his
work).

Apocrypha = early Jewish writings included in the Greek ("LXX/OG") and
Latin ("OL" and Vulgate) collections, but excluded from the
Jewish/Protestant canon. See the chart on the RelSt 135 home page.

Psuedepigrapha refers to other Jewish writings from the period, often
attributed to famous figures of the past (Enoch, Moses, Elijah, Ezra),
but not included in traditional Jewish or Christian canons of scripture.
Most of these books survived because of Christian interests (as also
Philo and Josephus!).

Recommended reading for next class, articles by Dr. Kraft, "Psuedepigrapha 
and Christianity," and "Judaism and the World scene." Both are accessible
from the course webpage.

Next class, will continue with orientation.  
 
//end of notes 99.01//
   
---
Religious Studies 525: Varieties of Early Judaism
Class notes #02, for 16 September 1999
by Chip Gruen <gruen@sas>

The first hour of class was spent examining and browsing web resources that
will be helpful for the class. Dr. Kraft and Deb Bucher steered the class
through a number of sites.

We started at http://www.library.upenn.edu
Click on "Selected Web Sites and Search Tools"
Click on "Religious Studies" to get to the department's web resources page.

We looked at the "Electronic Journals" section. Of particular importance
is Biblica (and its spinoff Elenchus Bibliographicus, from the mid 1960s),
which provides good bibliography; and Ioudaios Review, for reviews of
recent literature. Ioudaios Review developed from the IOUDAIOS-L
discussion group (see below) and has been indexed to make it searchable by
title, author, keyword, etc. Another excellent electronic book review
source is the Bryn Mawr Reviews (especially classical and medieval works).

The Religious Studies resource page also contains links to primary sources
in their original languages and in translation. In addition to Dr. 
Kraft's page at http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/rs/rak/kraft.html, there are
two other faculty members with home pages that link to many resources for
the study of Judaism and Christianity. They are: Jay Treat's page at
http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/hot.html and Jim O'Donnell's page at
http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/jod.html Most of the resources will be
duplicated in each page. However, each does contain a certain amount of
different links. Additionally, they organized differently, so you
may find something in one page that eludes you in another.

For the purposes of our course, there are two discussion groups that you
might want to join, if only to "lurk": ORION and IOUDAIOS-L. 
You can subscribe at
http://orion.mscc.huji.ac.il/cgi-orion/goto.pl and
http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/ioudaios/sub.html respectivly.

Additionally, check out the links from Dr. Kraft's page to his other
course pages (RELS 002, 135, 225, 735).

******

Sources:

The sources for this period and topic fall into four categories
    1) texts from inside a Jewish community (vast majority of the
       sources, often preserved only in Christian contexts)
    2) archaeological remains (and interpretations)
    3) art
    4) outside textual sources

We breifly examined the career of Tiberius Julius Alexander to illustrate
some of the aspects of using ancient sources.

Tiberius Julius Alexander (TJA)
    TAJ was the nephew of Philo. He entered political life in approximately
40 CE. He became the prefect of Judaea around 46 CE. A few years later he
served on the eastern frontier (Parthia). In the mid 60's he became the
governor of Egypt and Alexandria. During the turmoil of the year of the
four emperors (69 C.E.) TJA supported Vespasian's claim to emperorship.

    Josephus mentions TJA in his Antiquites and contrasts TJA's conduct in
relation to Judaism with the fidelity of TJA's father Alexander (Philo's
brother). Because TJA is said not to have maintained the "traditions of
his ancestors," he has traditionally been labeled an "apostate." However,
there is now an attempt to reevaluate the stance of TJA in view of our
better understanding of the options in early Judaism as well as our
assessment of the perspectives of the sources (especially Josephus).

For next time: Look at the on-line syllabus and find the topics that
interest you.

//end of notes 99.02//

---
Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism
Class Notes #03, 23 September 1999
By <Praiaesol2@aol.com>


Josephus (Joseph ben Matthias), born about 37 ce, priestly family, 
raised in Jerusalem. Connection to Macc.  Made general in 64 to fight 
the Romans; despite internal strife with another general. Josephus and 
his soldiers are defeated; Josephus decides against suicide and is 
taken captive. He writes The Jewish War from Rome, so all we know 
about him and his part in the war is from his own pen. 

Vespasian is Roman general at the time; later becomes emperor. Gives 
Josephus a slave as a wife, but later dismissed by Josephus, probably 
because of his priestly Jewish traditions. Wrote his first version of 
the War in Aramaic, but this is no longer extant. Later wrote it in 
Greek and claims to have gotten help with writing in this language. 

Some of Josephus' info in writing on the Maccabean/Hasmonean revolt 
(and civil war!) seems to be gleaned from 1 Maccabees, but there are 
divergences. Questions: did he have the text available, whether he 
wanted his text to be close to that text, did he use other sources? 
How confident should we be in making assertions about two texts which 
seem very similar? Also have textual problem of later variations due 
to copying procedures and updating; earliest Greek manuscripts of 
Josephus that we have are from 10th century ce. 

Many factors involved in analyzing ancient texts, and we need to be 
aware of the fact that as we make decisions, we are usually following 
the editorial work of a scholar or school and making a large number of 
assumptions. Need to get to the point where we learn to distinguish 
between the assumptions, and where we can make educated and confident 
assumptions of our own. 

We Read from the Life of Josephus (Vita)

- apparently there were various divisions of priest families; belonged 
to the "first of the twenty-four courses," was of the chief family of 
that course; his mother was of the Hasmoneans (Maccabees). 

- therefore of (Maccabean) royal blood, as well as priestly, since 
Maccabees had united the kingly and priestly office. 

- born in the first year of Caius Caesar (Caligula, 37-41 ce), had 3 
sons. First son named Hyrcanus, after the most powerful king of the 
Macc., whom Josephus sees as nearly a Messiah figure. 

Writes his "Vita" (not really a full autobiography) to refute some 
slander by a rival author regarding the lowliness of his family, etc. 

Digressed to Leontopolis (= Heliopolis), temple built in Egypt by head 
of high priestly house (Onias IV) who fled from Jerusalem at start of 
Maccabean uprising. 

Other Jewish temple found in Egypt on an island (Elephantine), 
excavated in 1920-30. Found an archive of Aramaic documents from about 
500 bce. 

Did these temples have sacrifices? Josephus doesn't at all talk about 
the Elephantine temple, but does mention that there are several Jewish 
"temples" in Egypt. 

Much of the information regarding these eras is only becoming 
accessible recently. 

We Read from Jewish War, book 2, chapter 8, sections 2-14 = paragraphs 
119-166 (note two systems of identifying textual locations, the older 
in Whiston [2.8.2-14], the newer in the Loeb edition [2.119-166]; both 
are now found in the recent one volume edition by Hendrickson 
Publishers). 

Three philosophical groups among the Jews during this time: Essenes, 
Pharisees, Sadducees 

Josephus explicitly claims that the Essenes are Jews by birth; perhaps 
there were accusations at the time that they were not, or traditions 
that failed to mention the Jewish connection -- e.g. Pliny the Elder 
mentions the Essenes, but doesn't call them "Jewish." Josephus makes a 
point of describing them as such. Presents them as an ideal group 
(just as Philo also does). Conquer passions and so on. Don't marry; 
adopt kids from other families and raise them as their own.  Lived as 
a commune, whereby all possessions belong to all members of the group. 

They don't all live together, but many dwell in many cities, and a 
network of hospitality exists, so they can always stay with one of 
their own when they travel. 

Their piety is described by Josephus as being very extraordinary, and 
seem to pray to the sun for its rising. Can't do anything of their own 
will, but obey the traditions of the community. Only two things they 
can do liberally: to help others and show mercy. 

Anyone who wants to join goes through a long period of testing: 
several years of following the laws, but during this time they are not 
yet allowed to live with the Essenes. Josephus mentions elsewhere 
(Vita) that he tried various forms of Judaism, lived in the desert 
with a man called Banus, who was probably Essene-like, and later 
associated with the "Pharisee-way"; does not mention that he tried the 
Essene way of life, presumably because they were too withdrawn from 
society, whereas Josephus wants to maintain good social relations. 

They have prophets who foretell the future, and use "Holy Books". 

There are other groups of Essenes who are more "liberal" in that they 
marry and procreate. 

Pharisees -- considered to be most skillful in interpreting their 
laws. They seem to combine a divine predestination with a human free-
will. Those who have done what is good in life have their souls 
migrated into another body upon death. The others are condemned to 
eternal punishment. Sounds like they have no chance of resurrection or 
re-incarnation. Pharisees are friendly to each other. 

Saduccees -- do not believe in predestination of any sort. God is not 
involved in what men do or decide to do. Are not friendly, rather 
"barbarous." 


Mention of the Essenes in Philo:

Found in a fragment of the "Hypothetica" or "Apology for the Jews" 
(quoted in Eusebius). Philo has another account in Every Good Man is 
Free. The details differ somewhat in these two accounts. 

Mentions another sect called the Therapeutae, in The Contemplative 
Life (a companion essay to Every Good Man is Free). Josephus does not 
speak of them, nor does any other ancient source. Term is used in the 
LXX as a translation of the Hebrew word for "servant," so has sense of 
service, but also of medical service. Philo sees them as both servants 
of God and healers. Are described as being very similar to the 
Essenes, so may have been a subgroup of theirs, found all over, but 
especially in the vicinity of Alexandria. They read and write books, 
have poetry and hymns . . . 

READ Philo's description of both the Essenes and the Therapeutae for 
next class.

//end notes 99.03//

---
Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism
Class Notes #04, 30 September 1999
By Christina Van Norman <cvan@sas.upenn.edu>


CD (or CDC) stands for the Cairo Damascus Covenant. It is sort of a 
Dead Sea scroll found (in two seprate manuscripts) before the Dead Sea 
scrolls were discovered. It is from the Cairo Geniza and was published 
in 1910 by Zalman (Solomon) Schecter. Fragments of the same material 
were found in some of the Qumran caves as well. A good question is, 
How did it survive to the 10th and 12th centuries in the manuscripts 
from the Cairo Ganiza storeroom when so much other stuff didn't? Maybe 
a copy was found in a cave around the year 800 and impressed the 
people of the time. A Syrian bishop named Timotheos around that time 
reported discovery of Hebrew manuscripts in a cave. Could it have been 
this? A medieval Muslim source also refers to the "cave dwellers." 
Could they be related to this? 

Something called the "Angel Scroll" was in the news last week. A 
Benedictine monastary in N. Germany supposedly leaked the information 
that they had a six foot scroll dealing with a revelation by an angel 
to a man named Yeshua/Jesus. The claim is that it was found on the 
east side of the Dead Sea. A respected American scholar of the Dead 
Sea scrolls in Israel named Steven Pfann has issued a report about it. 
He basically said that it sounds interesting but no one can really 
know until it is properly examined if it is authentic or not. 

Pliny the elder was a non Jewish first century author who was a 
contemporary with Philo and Josephus.  
-he was a Greek writing scientist/geographer/traveler who gathered his 
own and other peoples travels into a natural history.
-Pliny the elder died in 79 after the eruption of Vesuvius
-he provides a survey of Palestine and Judea and the Dead Sea (which 
he called Asphalites because of the asphalt found there). He located 
the Essenes in the Northwest area of it. He is the first author to 
identify the Essenes as being located in a specific place as opposed 
to living all over. He does not refer to them as "Jews." 

-Pliny was a major source used in the development of the "Essene 
Hypothesis" which claims that it was the Essenes who occupied Qumran 
and wrote the Dead Sea scrolls. Pliny reports the Essenes as having no 
women, stifling every urge, without money, and being "consorts of 
palms." 

Philo also has left us two separate accounts of the "Essenes" -- see 
computer text for a useful translation of Philo. 

There are many conjectures on the origin of the name "Essene." Philo 
associates the name with "hosios" which means "pious" in Greek. Some 
others see in the name a variation of the Hebrew word "hasidim" means 
those faithful to God's covenant, and recently (see the ORION 
discussion list on the Dead Sea scrolls) Stephen Goranson (Duke) has 
revived an old theory that the name derives from Hebrew "asah" = "to 
do" (the law). 

-there is also much discussion and many questions about how the 
manuscripts in the caves relate to the archeological ruins at Qumran 
and the date of the scrolls. Most of the scrolls that have been tested 
by carbon-14 methods seem to date to before the turn of the era. The 
Babata archive found near Masada which (about 50 miles south of 
Qumran) has scrolls dating from 132-35 ce. The Samaritan papyri found 
to the northwest of Qumran are earlier than the Dead Sea scrolls. 

One of Philo's two accounts of the Essenes was preserved by Eusebius, 
an early 4th century Christian "historian" and apologist -- the 
original treatise from which it comes has not survived. Eusebius sees 
Philo's Therapeutae as the first Christian monastics in Egypt. 

-Philo seems to call the Hebrews "Chaldeans" before his trip to Rome 
around 40 ce. After the Rome trip he refers to them as "Hebrews." This 
theory assumes that he learned about negative connotations of 
"Chaldean" in Rome. 

-Philo was a Platonist and really liked number theory, especially the 
number seven. 

-in his account the man referred to as the "lawgiver" and the "founder 
of the constitution of the Jews" is Moses. 

-he clearly puts the Essenes into a Jewish context and greatly admires 
them and their practices. 

*find and read his treatise on the Essenes (Every Good Man is Free)*

-Philo describes the Therapeutae as similar to the Essenes, but in 
Egypt, near Alexandria (by the Mareotic lake)* 

*find and read the material on the Therapeutae (On the Contemplative 
Life)*

//end of notes 99.04//

---
Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism
Class Notes #05, 07 October 1999
By Debra B. Bucher <bucher@pobox.upenn.edu>

Philo Bibliography

Best Greek edition: Cohn, Wendland, eds. _Philonis Alexandrini Opera quae 
supersunt._ Berolini : Typis et impensis G. Reimerii, 1896-1915.

English editions:

Yonge, ed.  _The Works of Philo : complete and unabridged._ New updated 
edition. Peabody, MA : Hendrickson Publishers, c1993.

Colson and Whitaker, eds.  _ Philo : in ten volumes (and two 
supplementary volumes) : with an English translation._ Cambridge, Mass. : 
Harvard University Press ; London : W. Heinemann, 1968-1981.  (Loeb 
classical library ; no. 226-227, 247, 261, 275, 289, 341, 379, 380, 401).

Secondary Studies:
1.  Goodenough, E.R.  _An Introduction to Philo Judaeus._  2d ed. Oxford: 
Blackwell, 1962.
Very detailed.  Introduces Philo's religious sentiments, politics, and 
philosophies.

3. Goodenough, E.R. _By Light, Light: Mystic Gospel of Hellenistic 
Judaism._ New Haven, Yale university press, 1935.
Goodenough sees Philo as a transitional figure between Platonism and the 
neo-Platonism of Plotinus (205-270 CE).  Neo-Platonism described as 
contact with God at a more than rational level (an experience).  This 
theme can already be seen in Philo.

2.  Sandmel, Samuel, _Philo of Alexandria: An Introduction._ New 
York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979.
Easier to read than Goodenough.  Includes a chapter on Goodenough's 
theory about Philo.

3. Wolfson, Harry Austryn.  _ Philo; foundations of religious philosophy 
in  Judaism,Christianity, and Islam._ Cambridge, Harvard University 
Press, 1947.
Described the Greek elements in Philo as a 'veneer' upon his Judaism. Was 
reluctant to describe Philo as a *Hellenistic* Jew, influenced by 
Hellenism and Greek thought. 

Philo Biography

Scholars don't know much about Philo the person.  More is known about 
his brother and his two nephews: Marcus Julius Alexander, who died 
young, but lived long enough to marry Berenice, Agrippa II's (44-94? 
CE) sister (Berenice later had an affair with Titus (79-81 CE) before 
he became Emperor); and Tiberius Julius Alexander, who was in the 
Roman military, became governor of Judea (46?-48 CE), governor of 
Egypt (66-69 CE), and then as a staff general for Titus in the siege 
of Jerusalem in 70.  Philo's brother was involved in finance 
in some way.  Josephus says that Philo's brother lent money to Herod, 
and gave funds for a gate of the Jerusalem temple. Most likely, the 
entire family were Roman citizens. 

Philo's familiarity with Greco-Roman thought is demonstrated through 
the similar type of allegorical interpretations he uses in his 
writings.  Allegory was used throughout the Greco-Roman world.  
However, he does use other methods.  His "Questions and Answers on 
Genesis" are examples of another type of scholarly or academic 
approach.  Many of his writings seem to have been intended for highly 
trained readers, skilled in allegory. 

Philo was very much interested in interpreting the books of Moses 
(Pentateuch).  He felt that Moses was a divine man (theos aner).  In 
true allegorical fashion, his teachings concerning these books go 
well beyond what the literal meaning is on the page.  His philosophy 
might be described today as a kind of psychology, in that he was 
interested in attitudes, states of mind, and how individuals interact 
with one another and the world. 

Philo was well known in the community.  Both he ("Flaccum" and 
"Gaium") and Josephus (Ant. 18.8.1 #257-60) relate that he was part of 
an embassy to Gaius Caligula (37-41 CE) to restore special privileges 
to the Jews of Alexandria. 

Although Grabbe puts Philo's dates at ca. 20 BCE-50 CE, Bob would like 
him to be around until just before the Jewish revolt in Palestine, 66-
70 CE.  Philo's treatment of the rise of Joseph in Egypt may reflect 
his view of the rise of his nephew, TJA. 

What does Philo teach us about Judaism in the Greco-Roman world?

1. Philo was a *Greco-Roman* Jew.  There is no separating his 
Greco-Roman-ness from his Jewish-ness.  

2. He is representative of a kind of Judaism--conscientious about 
community and about following the laws, even though he uses an 
allegorical interpretation of scripture.  His perceptions of other 
varieties of Judaism can be seen in his "On the Migration of Abraham" 
(89-93).   In this work, he criticizes those who distinguish a pure 
rationalism without reference to a community--those who perhaps take 
an even more allegorical approach to scripture than he.  He believes 
in the platonic ideal in which, after a person has been enlightened, 
s/he must go back into the darkness of the cave in order to teach 
those still there.  He seems to wants to take a more moderate 
approach: *not only* be aware of the meaning, but *also* obey the law. 

Discussion of "Every Good Man is Free"

#74 sets you up with strange non-Greek moral groups, then discusses the 
Essenes, whom he describes as "devout in the service (therapeuo) of 
God."  He later calls them "holy ones."  

A brief sidetrack into population figures.  Philo claims that there are 
"more than 4,000"  Essenes.  However, there is really no way to know.  
Other population figures cited by ancient authors are just as difficult 
to understand.  Whom exactly did the population figures include?  Only 
Roman citizens?  But the criteria for determining Roman citizenship 
changed over time.  And a person could be a citizen of Alexandria, for 
example, without being a Roman citizen. 

Questions/Things to think about concerning the Essenes and Therapeutae:

1. What were associations in the Greco-Roman world like?  And do the 
Essenes and Therapeutae resemble them?

2. Philo uses the word "synagogue" seldom.  He tends to use 
"proseuche" (prayer locale) much more often to describe the *place* 
of worship (or whatever happened in a proseuche). 

"On the Contemplative Life"

1. Men and women are both there.  Not, apparently, at Qumran, although 
it's very difficult to tell--at least there are few literary 
references to women. 

2. Philo describes them as healers, but also uses the word therapeuo 
in the sense of "service."  

3. Philo is loaded with intertextuality with the LXX/OG (especially 
the Pentateuch). 

4.  Important point:  Most Jews outside of Palestine in the Greco-
Roman world probably did NOT know Hebrew.  Certainly the Jews in 
Alexandria used the Septuagint and Old Greek translations of their 
scriptures, not the Hebrew. 

For next week:  continue with "On the Contemplative Life,"  esp. #18-40.  
Also read Grabbe!

//end of notes 99.05//

---
Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism
Class Notes #06, 14 October 1999
By Tammy J. Jacobowitz <jacobowi@sas>

1. Show and Tell

1.1. Tammy: Follow-up about the Septuagint legends. She talked about 
the letter from Aristeas to Philocrates, an excerpt from Philo (On 
Moses 2.25-4.4) and a passage from the Talmud (Babylonian Talmud 
Megilla 9a). A few main points: 

1.1.1. There is much debate about the authenticity and dating of 
Aristeas which purports to be by a Greek, writing very soon after the 
translation of the Septuagint. One factor in dating the Epistle is its 
allegorical interpretation of the Law -- if Philo is considered the 
first to do this, wouldn't he be after Philo? But then again, even if 
Philo were the first recorded Jewish allegorical interpreter, this 
would not necessarily mean he was the first. Again, it takes us back 
to the different approaches to understanding Philo's position in his 
age, and to understanding the wide range of perspectives within early 
Judaism.  

1.1.2. There is wide variety amongst the three above sources as to the 
inspired nature of the translation. Philo is the most extreme: claims 
that the translators were possessed, wrote every word the same, that 
every Greek expression used was perfectly matched to the Chaldean. 
(Seems to be motivated to equalize the Greek with the Hebrew; to 
maintain that the Greek is just as good. Talmud: God gave them help/ 
advice, that they all had the same results -- except that they all 
changed 14 verses in order to avoid offending the King or presenting 
misleading info about Jewish theology. Aristeas: that they conferred 
with one another at the end of each day and mututally changed their 
translations to emerge with one version. 

1.2. Chip: Reported on modes of execution in Roman Law.
In the Theodotion Code (late 4th cent ce) -- an attempt to consolidate 
Roman legal material stretching many centuries back -- there seem to 
be 2 strata of punishment: 1) lower class: crucifixion or being 
thrown to beasts. 2) Roman citizens: capital punishment -- 
decapitation, or just being "beheaded" in society (losing property, 
exile). RAK: There were lots of suicides in Roman history because 
people were afraid of losing their property (for ther heirs, etc.) if 
convicted of charges of which they were accused. 

2. "Other Resources" -- linked on RAK's page through our class page.
We looked at the Philo page -- we should read Treu's article!!

3. Discussion of canon, inspiration, authoritativeness: difficulty 
of using these terms for the ancient world -- meant different things 
to different folks in different situations (also today!). 

*When Josephus talks about the 22 books, he talks about their 
relationship to Jewish claims of antiquity instead of to revelation, 
etc. Antiquity is an important point of polemic as a criterion for 
privilege in the ancient world (see Against Apion). 

Note that the Greek scriptures were translated over a period of a 
couple of hundred years by different people probably in different 
places. The term "Septuagint" basically refers to the Greek 
Pentateuch, while the other books/sections are often referred to as 
"Old Greek" (OG) -- thus the designation "LXX/OG" for the entire 
heterogeneous anthology.  

4. Quick Review of LXX/OG and Latin Vulgate History

Ptolemaic Times (up to the late 1st cent bce)

LXX Proper -- 250-200 (3rd century)

Ben Sira/Sirach (prob. written around 200 bce by a certain 
Joshua/Jesus, the grandfather of the person who translated it perhaps 
70 or so years later. The grandson also writes a Greek prologue 
that mentions the problems of translation and makes a general 
reference to other respected Hebrew writings that had already been 
translated into Greek. 

Aristeas -- sometime between the original LXX and Josephus (who 
seems to be acquainted with the Aristeas materials). Most scholars 
date Aristeas before Philo. 

Roman Times (from late 1st cent bce)

Philo -- mid 1st cent ce (Philo mostly uses the Pentateuch, plus a few 
other books -- is that because he did not have the rest? Because it 
did not exist or he just did not have access or he didn't think it as 
important/authoritative?) 

Paul (about the same time) -- makes much wider use of Greek Jewish 
scriptures in service of his Jewish eschatological message.

Josephus (last quarter of 1st century ce) -- uses especially the more 
"historical" scriptural materials, plus other sources not subsequently 
included in the Jewish Bible.

late 2nd cent. Melito of Sardis -- quotes Jewish scriptures widely, 
gives a list of books that is almost identical to the Jewish canonical 
list. Similarly Origen in the first half of the third century (but 
with some additional books as well). 

Around this time, Latin translations appeared (unclear whether they 
were Jewish or Christian translators). These "Old Latin" translations 
of Jewish scriptures were made from the available Greek. Many 
different ones were being produced. 

Around the year 400, Jerome is commissioned to make a more homogeneous 
Latin translation. He learns Hebrew, Greek, moves to Bethlehem. He 
mostly pays attention to the scriptural books accepted by his Jewish 
informants (much like Luther, later). Pope instructs him to include 
the traditional apocrypha as well; Jerome takes the existing OL 
versions and does superficial revisions. For Psalms, he does both a 
new translation from the Hebrew Bible and revises the Old Latin. 

Sidepoints: even 200 years before ce, there were thriving Jewish 
communities all over the place that we know very little about -- North 
Africa, Asia Minor, Greece, Parthia/Babylonia, etc. With regard to 
"Bible" as a collective term, the development of the large-scale codex 
in the 4th century ce was a major factor; before that, the focus was 
necessarily more on the smaller units (scrolls, small-scale codices). 

5. Reading more about the Therapeutae in Philo

(Some scattered notes I wrote down as we read through the passages):

In his opening statements about the Therapeutae, it is hard to know 
what to make of Philo's assessments: he often writes in hyperbole and 
it is unclear if he means that there are many such communities 
generally or only in the Jewish world (loosely defined, of course). 
Chip's point: there were retirement villages throughout Egypt. In any 
event, Philo claims to describe a specific group in an identified 
locale (between the Mareotic Lake and the Mediterranean Sea, near
Alexandria). 

(25) oracles: could be a generaly poetic term or God-spoken word 
different from laws.

These people have a revelatory, literary and musical tradition.

What does "allegorical writing" mean? Is is coded writing? Is Philo 
attributing his sense of allegorical to these people? 

"moasteries" - alone places; in isolation.

They have both private and public holy places.   

_law_ as supreme
RAK: probably a term for the Pentateuch.

Philo never explicitly calls these people "Jews," but he makes several 
references that seem to require Jewish affiliation (e.g. section 64 
-- Moses as law-giver. Or at the end, Philo's description of their 
ritual to reenact the Song of the Sea from Exodus 15). 

THey had no slaves -- like the Essenes (as described by Philo).

Their assemblies: both at the end of each week and it seems, after 
every 7 weeks -- is this the holiday of Shavuot (The Feast of Weeks)? 
A type of Sabbatical year motif? Pentecost? 

Read to the end of the Therapeutae section.

Next: compare the treatment of the Therapeutae and the Essenes.
Start reading Jubilees and Enoch (samples of "apocalyptic").

//end of notes 99.06//

[[Where are Notes 99.07, from 21 October?]]

---
Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism
Class Notes #08, for 28 October 1999
By DanIstrate<danistrate@juno.com>


Enoch Cycle = Enoch material -- includes 1, 2, & 3 Enoch

- 1 Enoch is itself a library: 
The Book of the Watchers (1-36), 
The Book of Parables (or Similitudes) (37-71), 
The Book of the Heavenly Luminaries (or The Book of the Astronomical 
  Writings) (72-82), 
The Book of Dream Visions (83-90), 
The Epistle of Enoch (91-107), and 
Another Book by Enoch [ch. 108]. 

- 2 Enoch, associated in name/title with 1 Enoch, but not that much 
connection between the two; apocalyptic; sounds like it preserves old 
traditions, though 

- 3 Enoch, written in Hebrew, preserved in Jewish circles; could 
preserve early material; it's more mystical than apocalyptic

1 Enoch 6 - the story of the Watchers (sons of God, angels)
- sounds like Genesis 6:1-4, but with much more detail!

Q: In his material about the Giants, is Philo interacting with Gen 6, 
with 1 Enoch 6, or with something else?

RAK: Not certain. Philo's writings are not apocalyptic (he's probably 
coming out of a more "Sadduceean" context, so he would not be a fan of 
apocalypticism).  

Q: About varieties: Was there within Judaism, any known branch that 
had a feminine idea/figure of God (a feminine deity, such as 
personified wisdom)? 

RAK: There is not enough evidence to be conclusive, but it is 
plausible.  This could be so because what usually goes on functionally 
is different from the official idealized version.  In the Greco-Roman 
world there are female deities.  Looking at the Jewish world at a 
functional level (at the level of who's doing what), we see that 
angels in the Jewish world do what lesser gods do in the Greco-Roman 
context.  

Eg: The 'wisdom' figure in Proverbs 8 ("wisdom" is a feminine noun in 
Hebrew -- hochma) is not quite a co-creator, but it is not far from 
that position. 

Q: Is there any known significance to the number 200 (this is the 
number of the angels who rebelled according to 1 Enoch)? 

RAK: Not definitely.  It is interesting, though, that it is decimal, 
and not a m ultiple of 12/24.  There is a variety of traditions about 
heaven (in connection with numbers): 
a 3-heaven scheme (2 Cor 12:2), 
a 7-heaven scheme, and 
a 10-heaven scheme (3 Baruch) -- the latter being decimal, of course. 

1 Enoch 8 -- an aetiological account of sin and corruption.  Azazel is 
listed first, though the leader of the Watchers in 1 Enoch 6 is named 
Semjaza; Semjaza's name comes up in ch. 8 also.  Does this reflect 
different traditions of name lists for these angels?  Is Azazel 
another name for Semjaza, their leader?  Note the possibility of 
multiple traditions (see L. Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews).                        
                                                                                                                                                                
Q: How do we know what literary genres were used back then?  For 
instance, if remote future generations want to find out what late 20th 
century society was like, but all their available sources are only 
some 'trashy' novels, what would they conclude?  What if 1 Enoch, for 
example, is a representative of such a genre?    

RAK: We are not confident what we are talking about when we speak of 
"that time" (back then) -- 300-400 years is a long time; also, the 
aspects of location and language are debatable, and likewise, the 
issue of genre.  Apocalypticism seems to have been popular for a 
while, but one could argue that all the apocalyptic writings came out 
of the same "publishing house."     
    
Digression: An interesting example of transmission within Judaism is 
the Damascus Document which was found (before the DSS fragments came 
to light) in two copies in the medieval Cairo geniza.  How did it get 
there?  Was the Qumran-type organization widely spread and did it 
survive that long?           

RAK believes that Timotheus' Letter might throw some light on the 
issue (see the "texts" section of RelSt 225 for a translation). 
                                                                                
Written about 800 CE, it states that, "about 10 years ago in the 
region of Jericho books had been found in a cave." It is plausible 
that one of these books was the Damascus Document, and copies of it 
ended up in the Cairo geniza (possibly as a claim to antiquity of a 
subset of Judaism -- the Karaite movement -- that was criticizing 
Rabbinic Judaism in the late 8th century CE and afterwards).                       
                                                                                
Q: How do we know a writing is Jewish, and not influenced by 
Christianity, especially when the latter is responsible for preserving 
that writing?               

RAK: With 1 Enoch it is easier, for we have the DSS (fragments) of 1 
Enoch which look much like the 15th-16th centuries manuscripts of the 
Ethiopic (Ge'ez) translation.  In some documents, a Jewish substratum 
could usually be discerned, and sometimes Christian additions could be 
identified.  However, caution needs to be exercised here, for the 
tendency exists to attribute too much to Christianity, and not realize 
how rich the world of Jewish thought was at the turn of the era.  
Concepts that look Christian (such as the Messiah being the Son of 
God) could very well fit within the pre-Christian Jewish thought 
world.                           
                                                                                
On questions of definition and methodology, see: Smith, Jonathan Z.  
Map is not territory : studies in the history of religions. Leiden : 
Brill, 1978. (Series: Studies in Judaism in late antiquity. v. 23; 
Location: Van Pelt Library Call Number: BS540 .S62) -- also his Divine 
Drudgery, and other studies.                                                                            
                                                                                
Assignment:                                                                     
Sample Sirach                                               
Read/Sample Hodayot, Psalms of Solomon, and Odes of Solomon 
                                                            
//end notes 99.08//

---
Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism
Class Notes #09, 04 November 1999
By Elizabeth M. Jackson <emjackso@sas>

Hymns and "Wisdom" Literatures 

Sirach (Wisdom of Joshua Ben Sira)
Psalms of Solomon
Odes of Solomon
Hodayot
 
A book of "Hodayot" (1QH) and various other Hymns/Psalms were found 
among the DSS, as well as biblical psalter copies. These indicate 
the importance of this type of material for those readers. 
 
The Wisdom of Ben Sira or Ecclesiasticus begins with a prologue by 
Joshua ben Sira's grandson which discusses the translation.  This is 
one of the most serious commentaries on translation from antiquity.  
The prologue mentions three groups of other Greek translations: the 
Law, the prophets, and the rest of the books. Presumably, the Law 
refers to the Pentateuch. The category of prophets is ambiguous -- two 
different understandings of "prophets" are found in later listings: 
the Christian category of prophets focuses on Isaiah, Jeremiah,  
Ezekiel, and the twelve "Minor Prophets." The Jewish category calls 
these "latter prophets" and also includes "former prophets" such as 
Joshua, 1-2 Samuel and 1-2 Kings. In the Christian tradition, prophets 
tend to be seen in terms of predictions; in Jewish tradition, prophets 
tell the message of God's dealings with the chosen people. The Greek 
word <gk>profhths</> has both senses. 

Manuscripts: In addition to the Greek translation (probably done in 
Alexandria, 130-117 B.C.E.), there are numerous Hebrew fragments, at 
least five in the Cairo Genizah manuscripts, and one fragment in the 
Qumran caves (cave 5?) and another from Masada.  (Masada lies south of 
Qumran, and held out against Roman forces in the first Jewish 
rebellion until 73, longer than Qumran and Jerusalem.) 
 
In the middle ages, Sadia mentions the Hebrew Ben Sira as a useful 
book, but apparently does not class it with scripture.  Ben Wright 
argues that there are echoes of Ben Sira in rabbinic literature. 
 
Question: The prologue states that the translation is made for those 
who live within the law.  What is the thrust of such a statement 
relative to varieties of Judaism in the period? 
 
There are no references to a particular book, so conclusions about 
what the law is must be inferred from the text.  A common conclusion 
is that the writer is a teacher in Palestine.  The address of "my 
children" would bear this out, and the description of Joshua ben Sira 
in the prologue could be made to support it.  The law may refer to the 
Pentateuch, but specific definitions are difficult to make. 
 
In Ben Sira, there is a "seam" at Chapter 44.  A new heading appears, 
marking a conceptual separation, and perhaps also a physical one.  At 
this point, a historical survey of great people begins, including the 
lessons to be drawn from them. Some examples follow:
 
Enoch and translation: According to the biblical tradition, Enoch 
walked with God and disappeared.  Here, he is translated to paradise. 
Noah was just: "Noah" means consolation.  This is probably word play, 
an implied etymology in a tradition of etymologies. A remnant 
surviving the flood: eschatological terms used, whether consciously or 
not, in a book which is not really eschatological. Covenants after the 
flood: In plural.  Sometimes the covenant made with Noah appears as  
a more general covenant than that of Abraham or Moses, one made to all 
people.  Noahic laws may describe what God expects of human kind 
generally, often with language like that in this passage. Abraham, 
father of may nations: as in Philo's word play, father of a multitude.  
(Philo also suggests the etymology, "father of a great noise.") 
Covenant established in the flesh: singular, probably circumcision. 
Found faithful in temptation:  Probably offering to sacrifice Isaac. 
Keeping the law: Here before the law had been given to Moses.  Could 
be a reference to Noahic laws or to the heavenly tablets.  Keeping the 
law was important to different Jewish groups, and the law was 
interpreted broadly enough to include various grades of rituals.  
After Moses, there is a strong connection between Moses and the law. 
God's oath: Promise to Abraham often invoked for alleviation of 
suffering. From the river: One of the four in Eden?  The Euphrates in 
the Greek. 

Chapter 45: Moses and the holy ones: Perhaps hagios in the Greek, 
kadosh in Hebrew?  Through cultural and linguistic translations, 
hagios comes to mean saint (through Latin sanctus).  It could refer to 
the angels.  Analysis would require comparison with the new DSS 
sources.  Such a change might influence the eschatological content of 
the passage. Aaron and the tribe of Levi: The importance of the 
priesthood in Sirach.  Later, there is a eulogy for Simon the high 
priest (probably of the late third century).  The author seems to be 
connected to the Jerusalem priesthood.  There follows a long passage 
about Aaron and the priesthood in which God makes an everlasting 
covenant with Aaron. Phinehas son of Eleazar is third in glory: Moses 
Aaron, Phinehas?  Aaron, Eleazar, Phinehas? An eternal covenant is 
made with Phinehas in the Pentateuch.  Phinehas the priest who 
condemns the mixing of the sons of Israel and the daughters of Moab; 
he spears a copulating couple. David: Appears here chronologically out 
of place, perhaps through the theme of blessing. 

Chapter 46: Joshua son of Nun, but in Greek, Jesus the son of Nave.  
Perhaps the name Nave was changed to Nun to avoid the similarity 
between Nave and the Tetragrammaton, which differ only in the bottom 
stroke of the nun.  However, if Nave is changed to the Tetragrammaton, 
the phrase strongly resembles the Christian phrase "son of God."  This 
could be made to support the theory that Jesus Christ was not a 
historical figure, but a fictive or accidental creation.  Research on 
the historical Jesus has driven this theory out of popularity. Joshua 
was great according to his name: The name means "God saves."  In other 
literature, Joshua is the successor of Moses among the prophets; he 
overthrows the enemies of Israel, brings their inheritance, and stops 
the sun in the sky. Caleb: Appears in the hexateuch and leads Israel 
into the promised land after Moses. 

Chapter 47: The days of David: David appears again, with a eulogy on 
his acts. Solomon is wise and builds a temple: A summary of the 
tradition also in the biblical Psalms, Enoch, Jubilees, and Stephen's 
speech in the book of Acts.  Riddles, perils, fame, canticles, 
proverbs, interpretation, magic, and copper mines are associated with 
Solomon.  Solomon is brought down through his body, through women.  
Magic is not mentioned in this passage, but other sources associated 
both Solomon and Moses with magic, and Solomon with control over 
demons.  In one story, Solomon gains mastery over the spirits which 
are sent to test him, and compels them to construct his building 
projects. Ephraim: symbolizes the northern kingdom that splits away. 
Mercy: Hesed, that is, loyalty to a covenant.  It shares a common root 
with Hasidim. Jeroboam: rebelled against the taxes and public works 
program of Rehoboam. 

Chapter 48: Hezekiah (Ezechias): Makes the sun move backward according 
to Isaiah's orders to lengthen the king's life. 

Chapter 49: Josiah: Repentance and recovery of the law.  David, 
Hezikiah, and Josiah all committed no sins. Judah: Saul does not 
appear here.  Other kings are passed over.  There is an allusion here 
to Nebuchadnezzar and the burning of Jerusalem. Ezekiel: The bones and 
the chariot appear in the book of Ezekiel. Zerubbabel: One of the last 
Davidic kings.  He and Joshua the son of Jozadek come to symbolize the 
joining of king and priest (the two candlesticks in Zachariah). 
Nehemiah: is here but Ezra is not.  Ezra was the restorer of the law 
after the fall of the city. Enoch: a return; Seth and Shem, and 
Abraham and Joseph glorified. 

Chapter 50: This is probably also a separate section.  Simon son of 
Onias, high priest, is eulogized. 

Chapter 51: This prayer does not appear in all of the Greek 
manuscripts. It does appear separately in the Dead Sea Scrolls, not 
with Ben Sira, but in a collection of Psalms. 
 
Question: Could chapter 51 have been included in Ben Sira by a copyist 
because there was extra room on the end of the scroll? Sometimes extra 
space on a scroll is used for other material, but this is more common 
with the codex because the codex contains a fixed number of pages.  
With a scroll, the extra papyrus or leather could be cut off and 
attached to something else. 
 
Dating: The text was probably written around 200 bce, which would put 
the translation (by the author's grandson) in the second century bce.  
The family of Onias, and Simon who is eulogized in ben Sira, was a
priestly family that may have resisted Seleucid efforts. Simon is 
understood to be a contemporary of Joshua ben Sira. 
 
Question: Why does Ben Sira refer to Nehemiah but not Daniel? The Book 
of Ben Sira is not particularly eschatological; perhaps the author was 
not interested in Daniel's eschatology.  Perhaps both books were 
written near the same time. 
 
Question: Does Daniel praise the Hasidim in opposition to the 
Maccabeans? The evidence for this argument comes from chapters 11-12 , 
in the interpretation of the visions.  Daniel was probably written 
before the Maccabeans were really successful.  The Jewish community 
had various perspectives on the revolt.  Some refused to fight on the 
Sabbath and were slaughtered.  This lead to a change in halakic 
interpretation allowing for self-defense on the Sabbath.  Some Jews 
went along with the Roman program; they are called sinners in 
Maccabean literature, probably for appearing to compromise religion, 
but they are clearly Jews. 
 
Organization of text: The section beginning with chapter 44 seems to 
be connected to the rest of Ben Sira.  The rest is organized in 
separate elements, but not entirely clearly to modern eyes.  The first 
section shows an inclination to personify wisdom. 
 
Question: Are the titles at the beginnings of the chapters in Sirach 
editorial, or are they translated from the manuscript? The headings 
for chapters 11 and 44 are in some Greek manuscripts.  There is a 
textcritical question of variance in the manuscripts, as with the 
headings in the Psalms and the Song of Songs.  Titles may have been 
added or abandoned by scribes, and those changes may not be possible 
to date, or even detect.  A certifiably ancient document with a header 
would be good evidence.  Instructions in scrolls for teachers are not 
unknown, but they may have been introduced at various times.  There is 
a paper from the Dead Sea Scroll class on the positioning of blanks in 
the DSS, concluding that they sometimes have a dividing function, 
which addresses the question of format.  This question is one that has 
been eclipsed by the study of content.  Imanuel Tov is the expert on 
the relationship between presentation and subject in the DSS. Psalm 
151, which is about David going out to slay Goliath, only appears in 
some Latin manuscripts and varies widely in the ancient traditions.  
It represents a good example of highly revised material. 
 
Psalms of Solomon:
This appears in some Greek manuscripts among the deuterocanonical 
books.  Alfred Rahlfs includes it in his two volume Greek Septuagint.  
It also has a Latin and Syriac history.  Robert Wright (Temple) has 
done a great deal of work on the text of the Psalms of Solomon. 
 
Criteria for righteousness: Righteousness is judged by prosperity and 
progeny.  This often leads to questions of why the righteous suffer. 
 
Some passages in the Psalms of Solomon are interpreted as referring to 
historical events, for example, Pompey's conquests of Palestine in 63 
bce.  One problem with this approach is that the book is a collection 
of psalms and, like other books of psalms and proverbs may not be the 
work of a single author or even a collection of contemporary work.  
The book belongs to a genera of collections. 
 
Historical references in Psalm 17: Psalm 17 begins, as is usual, with 
a paean of praise.  It moves to hold God to his promises, and touches 
on sins and exile (perhaps, but not necessarily from Jerusalem), 
monarchy, despoil, David, the overthrow of Israel and the uprooting of 
the descendants.  Is this Nebuchadnezzar?  The changeover from 
Seleucid to Maccabean rule? A man alien to the race rises up against 
it -- this is associated with Psalm 8 and Pompey.  However, the genera 
does not draw clear distinctions between history and apocalypse -- 
events are likely to be symbolic and ahistorical.  Any historical 
content may not be identifiable. 
 
Question: In what language were the Psalms originally composed?
The consensus is that the book was written in Hebrew and translated 
from Hebrew into Greek.  The Syriac texts are of uncertain origin: 
although Syriac is more closely related to Hebrew, the translations 
sometimes more closely resemble the Greek. 
 
Dating: The texts have been dated by references interpreted to Pompey to 
about 63 bce.  However, since the history of Parthians, the Bedouins, 
and much of Central Asia at the time is unknown, it may be impossible to 
clearly understand historical references.
 
Question: When translations are made from Greek to Latin, is this in a 
Jewish context or a Christian one? 

This question is not asked often; usually such Latin texts are assumed 
to come from a Christian community.  Fourth Ezra (Second Esdras in the 
Revised Standard Version), also known as the Latin Apocalypse of Ezra, 
exists in Latin but not in Greek or Hebrew.  In 7:25 some versions 
refer to a 400 year millennium with a dying messiah.  Others add "my 
son the messiah, Jesus."  The text is accepted as a Jewish text with 
Christian influence, but it is not known when the translations was 
done, or when the emendations were made.  Similarly, the Greek 
Testaments of the Patriarchs picks up some explicit Christian 
references. 

The reference in First John to the father, the son, and the holy 
spirit appears only in late manuscripts.  According to one story, when 
Erasmus was editing the Greek NT, he couldn't find this passage in any 
available Greek manuscripts, and so he was not going to include it in 
his edition. Very quickly, Greek manuscripts were "discovered" and 
shown to him, so that he included the passage. Bart Ehrman's book 
Orthodox Corruptions of the Scriptures (NC Chapel Hill) proposes a 
model of textual emendations by orthodox believers to make the meaning 
of the text more explicit. 
 
Question: Is the phrase "my son the messiah" explicitly Christian? In 
the Psalms, David is called the son of God; he is often understood as 
the progenitor of the messiah.  A more flexible perspective on Judaism 
could be created out of this sort of material.  There is no explicit 
evidence for the phrase in Jewish writings, but similar language 
appears in the DSS. 

What do Christians create and what do they adapt?  The doctrine of the 
trinity may itself be an adaptation.  Philo writes that God is 
ineffable, but reveals himself in three ways: as king (theos), as 
sustainer (kyrios), and as law (nomos).  When doctrine has it that 
Jesus is not created, and he is identified with Wisdom, what do you do 
with a passage that says Wisdom was begotten?  Begotten is understood 
to explain a relationship, not a temporal sequence.  It is useful to 
look for this sort of drive behind a reading of scripture.  Probably 
very little of Christianity was not developed from somewhere else. 
 
Question:  Why is the millennium at 400 years in 4 Ezra 7? Most texts 
use a figure around 1000 (mille is Latin for 1000) instead; this is 
unusual.  Other variations in numbers include three/seven/ten heavens, 
and 70/72 nations, translators of LXX, or disciples sent out by Jesus!
 
Question: How accurate is the dating of the first year "of the Lord" 
(AD = anno domini)? If we accept most traditions, Jesus was born under 
Herod the Great, who dies around 4 bce.  How much before that?  A 
recent article in Lingua Franca on the star of Bethlehem has 
conjectures by different astronomers.  One argument is for 6 bce, 
another for 5 bce.  It depends what sort of thing you are looking for, 
a comet, a meteor shower, etc.  Even dating by Herod, which seems like 
the clearest information, is problematic. How long before Herod's 
death? And who would have recorded Jesus' birth?  In pre-industrial 
societies, people often don't keep track of their ages.  The earliest 
of Jesus' followers seem to have focussed on his death and 
resurrection.  The census described in Luke's nativity narrative took 
place in 6 ce, as far as the evidence shows. 

//end of notes 99.09//

---
Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism
Class Notes #10, 11 November 1999
By Dorothea Mueller <dmueller@sas.upenn.edu>

When does classical Judaism achieve the forms that survive today in 
orthodox Judaism? 

This question is hard to answer due to a severe lack of knowledge 
concerning different aspects of early Judaism. An important landmark in 
the development of classical Judaism, however, is the compilation of the 
two Talmudim (Palestinian and Babylonian). It is associated with the 
establishment of the authority of a group called "the rabbis"/"ha-
rabbanim," who are seen as the founding fathers of classical rabbinic 
Judaism. 

The Talmudim are rabbinic sources edited in the 4th-6th century 
(Palestinian Talmud seems the earlier), which create an ideal world 
built on a particular perception and interpretation of Jewish law and 
its ideas of purity. (Some earlier Midrashim already show the same 
ideals.) A whole historic construct tries to identify the origins of 
rabbinic law with 2nd century figures, e.g. Rabbi Akiva or Jehuda ha-
Nasi, and the developments they brought about. But only one single 
tractate in the Talmud itself, Pirqe Avot, tries to trace back earlier 
traditions. The understanding rabbinic Judaism shows of its own history 
is a construct that often does not correspond with other information 
(archaeological, etc.) from the same period. 

[[Excursion. The Persian period in Palestine began around the year 539 
BCE and is associated with Cyrus the Great. Apparently during his 
reign, permission was granted to the Jews to return to Judaea from 
their exile in Babylon. Those who returned struggled for a 
purification of their civil and cultic life (e.g. by means of the 
prohibition of mixed marriages). This period is usually identified 
with the work of Ezra. It also stands for the beginning of something 
that can properly be called "Judaism" since from this time on one can 
see some kind of continuity in the development of Jewish religious 
thought.]] 

Rabbinic sources represent only one of many different aspects of 
Judaism, which existed in numerous varieties throughout antiquity. 
Their value for historic research is often doubted. This skepticism 
has been emphasized by Jacob Neusner and his recently developed 
approach to rabbinic scholarship. Neusner accomplished to open up 
Jewish scholarship to the awareness of all sorts of constructs in 
rabbinic literature which make it difficult to use rabbinic writings 
as historic sources. Among other contemporary scholars, who are aware 
that the rabbinic sources are partly contradictory and often not very 
trusworthy in terms of their historical value for the earlier periods, 
Lester Grabbe is one of those who treats the material rather 
carefully. 

The final emergence of classical rabbinic Judaism seems to have been 
visible by the 5th century CE. At that time, however, it probably 
represented only a minority among Jews and seemingly had far less 
authority and prestige than one might expect from its influence on 
later periods. Around the 9th/10th century, it had to struggle with 
the problem of the Karaites who rejected rabbinic authority and wanted 
to return to a purer form of Judaism. Another phenomenon emerging in 
the Middle Ages was the splitting up of rabbinic Judaism into 
Ashkenazim (especially Germany and eastern Europe) and Sephardim 
(especially Spain). 

[Excursion. A short discussion on the numbering of Greek manuscripts 
in critical editions of Jewish scriptures, illustrated by RAK's story 
of discovering and identifying a fragmentary Greek manuscript of 
Joshua from around the 5th century ce.] 

There is no evidence for a single point of time at which Christianity 
can be said to have split off from Judaism. Jerome mentions the 
existence of "Jewish-Christians" in the late 4th century, while Tertullian 
opposes them already in the 2nd century. Justin Martyr's Dialogue with 
Trypho the Jew clearly refers (in a not unsympathetic manner) to Jews 
who believe in Jesus in the mid 2nd century. 

HODAYOT (1QH). "Hodayot" is the Hebrew term for the Cave 1 Hymnbook 
among the Dead Sea Scrolls. (Cave 1, as well as cave 11, is not 
located directly at the ruins of Qumran but contains better preserved 
materials than the Qumran caves themselves.) The parts of the damaged 
manuscript of the hymns were put together by the original team of 
researchers who worked on the DSS materials for years, but more recent 
publications show a reordering of the hymns (following Puech's 
research) and give both the old and the new numbers for columnation. 
(See e.g.the new edition by Garcia-Martinez or that by Geza Vermes.) 

It is not clear whether the hymns and songs from the DSS were actually 
sung in harmonies, i.e. in different tonal levels. Philo's description 
of the Therapeutae and their melodious singing might suggest that the 
Dead Sea sect also sang its hymns. R.Altmann (on the ORION electronic 
discussion group) argues that the blanks in the text of the scrolls 
(see edition by Garcia-Martinez) were significant for the musical 
intonation of the DSS poetry. 
 
The early conjecture that the Hodayot or at least some of them might 
have been written by the Teacher of Righteousness seems to be 
questioned by many scholars today. Some of the Hodayot reveal personal 
nuances, which could be due to the imitation of biblical psalms or the 
actual integration of biblical material in the Dead Sea poetry. The 
authors of the Dead Sea hymns especially mention David in connection 
with the biblical psalms. They see him in the tradition that 
associates him with psalms and songs, i.e. with the composition and 
musical oralization of poetry. 

One of the motifs that appears in the DSS materials is the dualism of 
"cleanness" and "uncleanness" but it is not clear whether the two are 
seen as formal categories or whether a distinction is made between 
moral and ritual impurity. It is possible that some of the DSS 
writings represent a step towards this distinction that is made 
clearly in later sources. 

//end notes 99.10//

---
Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism
Class Notes #11, 18 November 1999
By Uri Cohen <cohenu@sas.upenn.edu>


As a response to a question at the beginning of class Dr. Kraft 
mentioned that the Dead Sea Scrolls took as long as they did to come 
out because of that fact that the project was severely underestimated 
in reference to time and size of the "team," as well as reference to 
money. Because of this there were many monetary and logistical 
problems that had to be overcome before the works could be published. 

We visited 4Q184 "Wiles of the Wicked Woman" off of Alan Humm's 
website. It explains the beginnings of all paths to evil. 

We then visited Horoscopes, 4Q186.

People at this time were very pre-destination minded, though how this
horoscope relates to the destination is unclear. The body seems to have
been divided into parts, though exactly how this is, is also unclear, such
as descriptions of positions and their relationships to the parts of the
body, such as the nails.

4Q561 -- Eyes between clear and dark -- a physical description of what 
seem to be non-physical characteristics.

The Elect of God Text, 4Q534
Knows of three books, prudence, visions, he will live to old age. 
Wisdom will extend far, antagonists will fail, he is the chosen one of 
God. His work is like taht of the watchers. A note of interest is that 
there are 2 other descriptions like this -- the Epistle of Titus in 
the Acts of Paul (a physical description of Paul), and the Apocalypse 
of Elijah (only exists in Armenian; the antichrist is described very 
much like this as well), Perhaps this style of description can be 
found elsewhere as well. 

They had pretty much the same Zodiak as we do. There isn't a lot of 
Zodiak-related material, but there are some that are interesting, 
including the fact that Zodiak-related images can be found on the 
floors of some synagogues in Palestine from the early medieval period. 

Wisdom of Solomon

This is a long book, in poetic form. It is an apocryphal work in 
Greek. We found it on the web at http://www.ht.umich.edu, off of Alan 
Humm's page in the "Bibles" section. 

The book is attributed to Solomon. The first five chapters have images 
similar to some in the Dead Sea Scrolls, as well as to Christian 
understandings of Jesus -- the motif of the righteous man who is 
persecuted. This seems to be a template for a righteous person. 
Second-Isaiah is similar with the "suffering servant" idea. 
Righteousness is good and characterizes the child of God. The 
righteous person avoids those who are not righteous, considering them 
to be "base." People test him with insults. This picture is startling 
as seen through the eyes of the church. 

The book is believed to have been authored in Greek as a sermonic 
work. The latter part is a sophistocated sermon on the Exodus. This 
doesn't reflect the translation of the LXX to the extent we might 
expect, although WisdSol was written after LXX Exodus. 

The book was probably written in the late 1st Century BCE in 
Alexandria by a Jew. Wisd 2.24 mentions the devil -- possibly the 
Greek word for devil is a translation of the Hebrew "satan" or 
"adversary"; by this time there seems to be a concept of the devil as 
an independent being. This idea may have come from Persia. Scott 
pointed out that the word "diabolos" is mentioned 22 times in the 
Greek Jewish scriptures, but he didn't remember the history. 

The righteous man is seen as getting clobbered. Then followed a 
discussion of the fact that Wisdom is seen as feminine. Woman is used 
as a philosophical category by Philo. Here  wisdom is used in relation 
to living life the "correct" way. It is rampant in the literature of 
this time. Widsom protected Adam, Cain, Abel, Noah. A hymn to Wisdom 
exists. In Exodus, Wisdom entered Moses, helped the people to escape 
from Egypt. 

Ex. 19.18 The elements change -- blindness occurs, as the Plague of 
Darkness is recorded. The elements change places with each other, as 
in some Greek "scientific" speculations. God has glorified the people 
Israel, not neglected them. 

Did people care who wrote the texts? If the claim was that a great 
person (Enoch, Solomon) wrote about it, then yes, they probably did 
care. If authorship by such people is not claimed, then it is 
probably not so important who it was that wrote the material. A 
similar phenomenon occurs with reference to the Jesus traditions. He 
is talked about the same way, by attributing the accounts to famous 
early Christian authors. The WisdSol material is thought to have been 
written in Alexandria because of its more "philosophical" content. 

Some of the Odes of Solomon were seen at www.abc.org/odes.htm Not all 
of the Odes are explicitly Christian. We don't know whether or not 
some of this material came from a Jewish source. 

Ode 10: Parallelism is used -- typical of Semitic poetry. Note how a 
figure like the Messiah/Christ is described as conquering the world. 
Looks like a Christ figure... salvation as  key. Is it possible that 
this could have come from a Jewish background with this very 
Christian sounding language? 

Ode 36: "I rested on the spirit of the Lord" -- Syriac says "she". A 
mystical descent is described. Christ talks about his ascent, he is 
called son of man and of God (referred to as Light, son of God). This 
doesn't sound necessarily Christian, since the son of man aspect is 
not a particularly Christian notion and is also found in pre-Christian 
Jewish sources. The book doesn't seem to say that it is by Solomon, 
but it is attributed to him anyway. Some of it sounds very much like 
good Christian hymns. 

Fourth Maccabees

There are 4 books with the title "Maccabees". 1 and 2 have to do with 
the Maccabean revolt. The Third has nothing to do with the Maccabees 
but deals with an Alexandrian problem of a different time. The fourth 
book is a treatise that argues that reason subdues and is more 
powerful than the passions, using the story of the seven Jewish 
"martyrs" and their mother. In the story, each son is told to denouce 
Judaism but refuses and dies as a consequence. Thus reason (i.e. 
faithfulness to God and the law) is better than passion (i.e. holding 
on to life). All of this is presented in a philosophical framework. 
The Greek of the book is often very hard to translate... very specific 
torture devices are referred to. This text became widely used in 
Christian circles because of references to martyrdom, death for God. 
It was also widely used in Jewish circles, as it mentions faith until 
death. 

For next time we are told to read the intros to the sources mentioned 
in the syllabus (Fall 1992) to get a sense of what is there. 

//end notes 99.11//

---
Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism
Class Notes #12, 02 December 1999
Daniel A. Gabriel <gabrield@sas.upenn.edu>


1. Report on Meeting of American Academy of Religious / Society of 
Biblical Literature -- The annual meeting took place in Boston during 
the weekend (Sat - Tues) preceding Thanksgiving, with over 8000 people 
in attendance. 

One of the sessions at the SBL conference included discussion of where 
Dead Sea Scrolls research stands at present, with a particular focus 
on the cemeteries which have been located at Qumran. The main cemetery 
found thus far contains over 1100 graves, less than 50 of which have 
been dug thus far. Most of the skeletons recovered from that site have 
been identified as male, although there has been much discussion as to 
whether some of them might have, in fact, been women. It had been 
suggested that DNA tests be employed to resolve this question, but 
this may not work because of the age of the bones. For bones this old, 
even Carbon 14 testing is not always effective in gathering 
information, and at present, determinations of the sex of the persons 
are made by measuring the pelvises, height, and similar physical 
features. This main cemetery is also interesting because the graves 
and bones found here had been oriented in a north-south position (most 
heads to the south), whereas the bodies at other, smaller, adjacent 
cemeteries did not have graves all organized one direction. The 
adjacent cemeteries seem clearly to include bones of women and 
children, which has been taken to challenge the idea that the nearby 
community was composed of male ascetics. The report in Boston claimed 
that the main adjacent cemetery was not ancient, but was a bedouin 
burial site no more than two centuries old! One major problem 
hindering research into these questions is that fact that the Israeli 
government will not, at present, allow more graves to be dug, out of 
deference to the Orthodox Israelis who oppose this practice on 
Religious grounds. 

2. Revolt against Trajan 

Other noteworthy sessions at the SBL conference dealt with Philo, the 
Greco Roman world, and the tearing down of the temple of idolaters as 
recorded in the Testament of Job. It was suggested that the 
description of this destruction may be a reference to the aftermath of 
the revolt against Trajan. This revolt occurred in approximately 115 
CE, and ended with the apparent destruction of the Egyptian Jewish 
community. In fact, this destruction was so complete that 
Modrzejewski, in his work Jews of Egypt (written in French, recently 
translated to English), who traced the history of Jewish communities 
in Egypt ended his book with their annihilation in 116 CE. In addition 
to declaring that Jews were destroyed at this time, he argued that 
Jewish-Christians were also killed at the conclusion of this revolt. 
As a result, he believed that the first Egyptian Christians formed 
independently of Jewish-Christians. Archaeological evidence for the 
destruction of the Jewish Community can be found in the tax receipts 
at Edfu, a town in Egypt which was located far from Alexandria and 
other centers of power. Jews had been compelled to pay a special tax, 
and so it can be determined that when the tax receipts end, so did the 
Jewish community. Excavations and tests have revealed that the tax 
receipts ended in approximately 115 CE. The fact that Edfu is off the 
beaten path, yet still saw the destruction of its Jewish community in 
this revolt indicates how widespread the massacre of the Egyptian Jews 
may have been. Although the revolt had a major effect on Jews in 
Egypt, it seems to have had little effect on the Palestinian Jewish 
community. Nevertheless, one may be skeptical that such a major event 
could not have had cultural and political implications for Jews 
throughout all of the Roman empire. The revolt of the Egyptian Jews 
against Trajan is recorded by few historians of the time, but those 
who do write about these events all label it as a great crisis. One 
writer claims that 500,000 people were slaughtered in the revolt, and 
other even record that the Jews were initially successful before 
finally succumbing to the power of Rome. 


3. Sibylline Oracles 

In the 4th century BCE there were various female oracles in the Greek 
world representing early Greek traditions of about divine revelation. 
Unlike other oracles who spoke for themselves, these women spoke 
ecstatically so that their utterances needed to be interpreted by 
their associated priests. It is told that they would sit in stools 
which were placed above cracks in the earth out of which certain gases 
would be emitted. This contributed to the air of mystery which 
surrounded them. The oracles were so prominent in their time that they 
were intertwined in cultural structures and were compiled and 
transmitted through the ages since. When the Romans took over the 
Greek world they placed great value on the proclamations of the 
oracles. This respect was so great in fact that the oracles were 
collected in written form and an office of the Keeper of Sibylline 
Oracles was established in Rome. This person was charged with 
protecting/maintaining the collection and consulting them when needed. 
Before undertaking major decisions such as war, the oracles were 
usually consulted by the Roman leaders. The original collection 
perished in a fire in 82 bce, and subsequent efforts to restore it 
encouraged various developments including the production of the 
surviving materials by that name, which clearly have come through 
Jewish and Christian filters. 

4. Jewish (and Christian) Sibylline Oracles 

Over time, Jewish writings and ideology were interspersed with and/or 
created in imitation of the traditional utterances of the oracles. 
Similarly, Christian materials were also interjected into the 
Sibylline collections and copies resulting in the surviving 
(Christian) Sibylline Oracles. It is not clear how much, if any, of 
the "official" Roman collection(s) have survived in these materials.
Collection of such writings had already become a literary tradition by 
the time the Jewish and Christian influences were added. When 
examining this collection in John Collins' translation (in 
Charlesworth) it will be evident that certain sections are 
particularly Christian in outlook while others can be seen as 
primarily Jewish and still others as not obviously reflecting either 
tradition. 

5. Sampling the Extant Sibylline Oracles
 
John Collins translated and edited the collection of Sibylline 
material which is found in Charlesworth: 

Book 1. Prologue: a connection is made to Jewish traditions. Line 324: 
there is cryptic letter imagery about Jesus' name. The numerical value 
of the name of Jesus in Greek may have special meanings when the sum 
of all the letters is computed. This reference to Jesus' name is a 
clear example of Christian contributions to the Sibylline material. 

Book 5. This book is much less Christian than the first book and there 
is only one "probable" Christian reference that can still be found 
(lines 256-259). Of course, Jewish and Christian interests often 
coincided. 

The Return of Nero ("Nero redivivus"):

5.214ff highlights the apocalyptic and eschatological aspects of this
collection. Some significant references in this line include:

5.214: Corinth was an important shipping port in antiquity, and a 
major city in Greece 

5.218: Bronze -- Nero is said to have had bronze tools with which to 
cut out the rocks near Corinth 

5.222: Cutting off the roots of three heads -- this may refer to the 
three empires and be an allusion to Daniel 7.8 and/or other 
apocalyptic traditions (e.g. 4 Ezra, Revelation) --"three empires" is 
a common theme in Jewish and Christian eschatology. 

On Egypt, see e.g. 5.179ff: this section contains a mixture of 
geographical-historical identifications and condemnation 

5.52ff already refers to calamaties in Egypt

Some noteworthy references in this section include:

5.53: Isis was the most famous goddess for Greco-Roman Egyptians as 
evidenced by the statues erected to her throughout the land. Many of 
these images were defaced by Christians and Muslims in later eras. She 
is said to have had phallic symbols erected in honor of her murdered 
husband, Osiris, and doubtless also connected with fertility issues 
in the "mystery religion" that is called by their names. 

5.56: Mention of the Nile River -- its flooding was crucial to 
agriculture and consequently to life in Egypt 

5.88: Alexandria is mentioned as part of Egypt (but the text seems 
corrupt). This is unusual as Alexandria thought of itself as an 
independent city-state under Rome and ruling Egypt, but not as a part 
of Egypt. There was a sense of pride at being an "Alexandrian," and 
this title carried status in the Greco-Roman world. As a result people 
who could do so usually referred to themselves as Alexandrians and did 
not identify with Egypt as such. 


6. Oral Exam 

- We will be examined on our knowledge of the material pertinent to 
the course, and not simply for knowing specific texts such as Grabbe. 
That is, not all material covered on the exam will necessarily be 
found in the specific texts which we bought or used for the course; 
one point in such an exam is to test the scope and limits of our 
knowledge of the overall subject matter, obtained from whatever 
sources (including class discussions and the minutes!). 

- The minutes which have been recorded by students are being loaded 
onto the website after Dr. Kraft has had a chance to edit them (be 
forewarned that he may have made some corrections or additions to your 
minutes, so if they are not exactly as you submitted them, do not be 
too surprised). We will be responsible for the material that was 
covered in class as recorded in the minutes as well as material in 
Grabbe's books. 

- The oral exam is generally administered after a student has had 
his/her paper returned to him/her and has had a chance to review Dr. 
Kraft's questions and comments. The subject matter and approach taken 
in one's paper are topics that may also be expected to be discussed in 
the oral. 

- We are permitted to retake the oral exam if we (or Dr. Kraft) are 
not satisfied by our performance the first time, and would like the 
opportunity to review other parts of the material that we may not have 
studied initially. 

- It will not be a "rote memory" test for dates, data, etc. (although 
memory will certainly be crucial to a successful performance!). 
Relational information about various events may be important (knowing 
the order of major movements and texts may be relevant), but specific 
dates are usually not -- except for a few obvious "pegs" such as the 
Maccabean/Hasmonean uprisings around 165 bce and the  destruction of 
the second Temple in 70 CE. 

7. Research Paper 

- The paper is graded based upon how the student deals with data that 
has been collected. 

- In addition, methodological selfconsciousness will be an important 
factor. One should attempt to demonstrate an understanding of where 
assumptions have been made in the material which is collected, and 
which assumptions are being made in the course of this research. One 
should be careful in dealing with such assumptions and Dr. Kraft will 
be alert to the ways in which the papers show their awareness. Clear 
definitions are basic to successful communication and consistent 
treatment. 

- Dr. Kraft often reads a research paper and permits students to add 
comments or an appendix dealing with certain problems in greater 
detail or with more sophistication. He has, on occasion, asked people 
to rewrite parts or all of a paper, but it is more likely that one 
would be asked to add a section rather than to do a rewrite. 


8. Hanukkah

The word Hanukkah is literally derived from the words <hb>Hannukkat ha 
bayeet</> which means "dedication of the house," referring to the 
dedication of the Temple which was undertaken by the Maccabees after 
defeating the Seleukids and their supporters around 165 bce. The 
Seleukid ruler, Antiocus IV Epiphanes, had ordered a Greek deity's 
statue to be erected in the Temple, and after reconquering the Temple, 
the Hasmoneans needed to clean and rededicate it to remove 
this impurity. Following victory in the revolt, the Hasmonean dynasty 
ruled Palestine for about 100 years until Rome took over with the 
arrival of Pompey in 63 bce. John Hyrcanus, the most famous Hasmonean 
king, who ruled from 135-104 bce, is a hero of Josephus, and has come 
to be an icon of this dynasty. Some people saw the Hasmoneans as 
having betrayed their own cause, as they merely set up a kingdom in 
place of the one which they had rejected. Rather than restore the 
legitimate and traditional High Priests to their positions, they took 
this role for themselves. Although they came from priestly backgrounds 
themselves, their were not from the lineage of Zaddok, the family of 
priests that occupied the High Priesthood at the time of the uprising. 
The designation "Hasmonean" (family name, clan) is used in Semitic 
sources and the name "Maccabean" is found in Greek sources. There is 
no mention of the holiday of Hanukkah in the rabbinic Mishna (or, so 
far, in the Dead Sea Scrolls), but it is discussed in the Gemara. 


9. Books of Maccabees
 
The holiday ostensibly commemorates the miracle of a single day's 
worth of oil for lighting the lamps in the Jerusalem Temple lasting 
for eight days. However, this legend is not found at all in the books 
of the Maccabees! The first book of Maccabees discusses the uprising 
in the context of the history of the Greek Empire from the time of 
Alexander until the accession of John Hyrcanus in 135 bce. The second 
book focuses on the immediate background and the uprising itself, 
including the dismantling and storage of the Temple implements to 
protect them from being defiled. Third Maccabees has nothing to do 
with these events but deals with an earlier problem in Alexandria!
Fourth Maccabees uses the Maccabean "martyrs" mentioned more briefly 
in 2 Maccabees as subject of a treatise on reason controlling 
passions.

//end of notes 99.12//

---
Religious Studies 525, Varieties of Early Judaism 
Class Notes #13, 09 December 1999
by Dwight Singer <DwightSing@aol.com>


Introduction to Chip Gruen's ongoing graduate project -- display of 
the available parallel column Greek and Hebrew (unpointed, at present) 
texts of the Pentateuch (the project will include other books of the 
Hebrew Bible at a later date). The texts were prepared during the 
past two decades by the CATSS (Computer Assisted Tools for 
Septuagint/Scriptural Studies) project and can be accessed through 
RAK's home page under CCAT Gopher, Religious Texts. RAK indicated that 
the Hebrew text is the BHS3 text and the Greek text is the Rahlfs text 
(to be modified to the Gottingen text where it exists). He also 
distinguished between diplomatic vs. eclectic texts. The first 
approach selects the best (or most useful) actual manuscript and 
provides variants in a textual apparatus while the second choses from 
the various readings in the manuscripts (plus hypothetical 
reconstructions when needed) and recreates what is thought to be the 
oldest recoverable text, with the ideal of recovering the original. 
The Greek text that Chip is using is eclectic, while the Hebrew is 
diplomatic (the Leningrad codex). The presentation of the project also 
included some discussion of the format of the larger CATSS project and 
sources that could be accessed in conjunction with that project. 

Review of the course in preparation for the final commenced. 
Throughout the class RAK sought to allay student frustration/dread(?) 
over the vast amount of material from this period -- in view of the 
impending oral exam. He will examine how far each student's knowledge 
goes, what each student does not know, in order to foster continued 
learning and familiarity with the material. 

The review began with an extended line of questioning concerning the 
various groups within Judaism during the Hellenistic Era. RAK's 
questions were formulated to encourage students to be self-conscious 
about their methodology. 

He mentioned that Marcel Simon's little book on Jewish sects deals 
briefly with varieties of Judaism beyond those mentioned by 
Josephus. He asked if anyone knew who the "Hemerobaptists" were. 
Apparently, from their name, they baptized daily. He admitted that 
this group is quite obscure, along with several other named groups. 

He began a series of questions on the Samaritans in relation to 
Judaism in the period. What did Josephus think? What information do we 
have outside Palestine (location where we know the Samaritans were) 
regarding not just the Samaritans but also "Jews" as a designation 
(however we may classify Samaritans)? In the West we know Jews lived 
in Asia Minor (Ephesus and other cities mentioned). In the East, in 
Babylon, we know very little. Christian anti-heresy authors sometimes 
mention Jewish sub-groups, sometimes including "Samaritans." It 
appears that some Samaritans may have lived in a Graeco-Roman 
community on the island of Delos. 

The "geographical survey" of locations of Jews and especially 
Samaritans leads us to the awareness of the difficulty of 
identification in the world outside of Joesphus' Palestine, where 
there are no known standard "labels" for the various varieties 
of Judaism. RAK supplied the general illustration of Alexandria, which 
though in Egypt did not consider itself as Egyptian. Josephus in 
Against Apion "took a swipe" against Apion for claiming to be an 
Alexandrian because he was actually (says Josephus) an Egyptian. RAK 
further observes that in Alexandria, where we know Jews lived, 
nevertheless, we do not know if Pharisees, Sadducees, or Essenes 
had communities/synagogues there. 

What label would you put on Philo? This question initiates the next 
extended line of questioning. Again, RAK's interrogation forces self-
consciousness in methodology. This is evidenced in his follow-up 
question: What would you base your answer on? Other relevant matters 
that would help us in attempting to "label" Philo: What does he tell 
about himself? What is his view of eschatology and resurrection 
(noting the reported difference in views between Pharisees and 
Sadducees)? Is he concerned about the law (but this question would not 
be too helpful since it would be unusual to find any Jew unconcerned 
about the law)? How he interpreted the law would be the issue that 
might better distinguish between groups. RAK then focused the class's 
probings. He notes the Pharisees interest in eschatology and the 
absence of it in Philo (he "stifles" eschatology). Thus, Philo 
probably should not be labeled a Pharisee -- at least not of the 
eschatological sort. 

What about Sadducee? We assume, on the basis of Josephus' accounts as 
well as others, that Sadducees were closely associated with the Temple 
in Jerusalem. However, Philo pays little attention to the Temple in 
Jerusalem except in the Embassy to Gaius (where the threat to Temple 
sanctity is central), the treatment of "special laws" (reflecting 
Pentateuchal passages; see below), and a few other passing references. 
Could he have been associated with the Jewish Temple in Egypt in 
Heliopolis/Leontopolis? He also does not explicitly mention this 
Temple, although it is likely that he would have known about it. RAK 
asks the class to consider also what others may have said about 
whether Philo was associated with the Jerusalem Temple. Josephus says 
that Philo's brother Alexander (father of Tiberius Julius Alexander) 
donated the silver and gold for nine "gates" of the Jerusalem Temple 
(War 5.[3.]205). Philo alludes to pilgrimages to the Temple (Special 
Laws 1.69, in a lengthy passage playing on Pentateuchal references to 
"the holy place" where the priests are active, festivals are observed, 
etc.). Thus, we may conclude that Philo was quite conscious of the 
Jerusalem Temple. Moreover, that the Jews of the Graeco-Roman Period 
sent an annual tax contribution to the Temple further suggests that he 
(as all Jews) would at least be well aware of the Temple and its 
functions. Indeed, most of what is known about the Sadducees in 
Palestine is "tied to the Temple." But Philo's failure to give any 
special attention to the Jerusalem Temple suggests that he doesn't fit 
the (artificial?) stereotype of a Sadducee. 

A question arose from the class concerning the association of the 
Sadducees with the Jewish state. RAK asks: Can such an association be 
extended to other locations (leaving open the possibility that 
Sadducees may be found outside Palestine)? We do not have any data, 
but RAK contends that guessing about what the Sadducees may have done 
in other places is not bad, for it keeps the researcher open-minded. 
RAK notes that Sadducees are mentioned in later centuries by Christian 
writers. Is this a frozen polemic or an actual group? In addition, 
should we associate the sons of Zadok mentioned in the 10th-12th 
century copies of the Damascus Document with the Sadducees? RAK's 
answer: they do not fit with Josephus' description. However, is a 
survival/revival of the group possible? The discussion moved to the 
consideration of changes within communities. In understanding those 
groups that have lived on, how have they transformed themselves? 

The DSS (Dead Sea Scrolls) were the next area of discussion. RAK: Who 
left us the scrolls? Student queries: Do you mean what group is 
responsible for them? RAK points out that the question assumes 
homogeneity of origin. RAK notes that the composers of the Damascus 
Document sound more like the Essenes of Josephus and Philo than like 
other groups (perhaps by default), but would they seem like the same 
group as those that copied the 10th-12th century CD manuscripts? The 
different editions of CD illustrate the "great dilemma," i.e., how do 
we understand the changes within communities over time. How much 
change can go on in a group without destroying the meaning of our 
labels? In different times and locations is the group the same? Let us 
consider the DSS community and assume it was one group. We may note 
changes in some concepts, e.g., the Messiah. Can we say that the group 
remained the same within such development? RAK observes that Jewish 
vs. Christian scholars have often come from different perspectives in 
attempting to answer such a question. A Jewish "lever" for 
understanding could be continuity of Halakah while that of the 
Christian might be eschatology (to oversimplify matters!). Today we 
struggle to find balanced ways of approach to recreate the 
most historically believable situation. 

Digression to exam concerns and another challenge concerning self-
conscious methodology. RAK alerts us that we have elementary decisions 
to make regarding the vast amount of material. The challenging issue: 
Whom do you trust? We may consider the bones at Qumran (cf. class 
#12). Is the discrepancy over the reported length of the spike in one 
report from an "expert" (e.g. 2 1/2 vs. 3 inches), any reason to 
dismiss all other arguments of that particular scholar? How can we 
identify with assurance the difference between female and male 
skeletons? We are dependent upon the work of others. RAK's lesson in 
this covers one of his pedagogical goals: How do you do research? / 
How do you use another's research? (Thus, we need to be self-conscious 
of our methodology.) 

RAK concludes. For the assumed DSS community, as for most early 
Judaism of which we are aware, and to some extent even for the Judaism 
that became "classical," eschatology is central, pervasive. 
Eschatology also became a problem for early Christianity. So we are 
brought back to the issue of change within communities. The "scroll 
people" (assuming that they did not live on) did not make an 
effective adjustment. Christian Jews did, however. They marginalized 
eschatology. Rabbinic Judaism also adjusted. Eschatology tended to 
become an echo in the liturgy, for most. Returning to previous 
discussion: did the Sadducees have a significant eschatology? RAK 
thinks not. What about an individual like Philo? Philo did not voice 
any significant eschatological views. He may not have been happy with 
what was voiced by others. A final comment focuses upon Paul, a rabid 
Jewish eschatologist in contrast to Philo). RAK appreciates Paul, 
while not necessarily agreeing with him, for on the basis of Paul's 
writings it is possible to predict Paul's responses to issues even if 
he might not address them directly. To some extent that can also be 
done with Philo. Unfortunately, such opportunities are rare in 
historical scholarship, and we are often left in the dark about
things we would like to know.

[Scribal note: Thanks for your flexibility in allowing us to work (on 
course requirements) at a pace slower than that of the academic 
schedule. Response: That way I can legitimately expect more! I look 
forward to reading your research papers and discussing it all with you 
as an end event of sorts.]] 

//end of 1999 class notes//