Religious Studies 135 Christian Origins Class Notes for Fall 1998 Edited by Robert A. Kraft --- Class #1 (10 September 1998) By Emily M Jaffe [in retrospect] - The objective of this class is to understand the background of Christianity, not dealing with its modern implications, but dealing primarily with the first two hundred years of the common era. - Jesus born sometime before the year 4 bce (before the common era) - Srart with the history of Judaism and move into the development of Christian literature in circulation up to around 200 ce - 313 Constantine the Great orders legal toleration for Christianity - 381 Christianity became the favored religion in the Roman Empire - until those developments, Christianity was "underground" - "New Testament" includes the "Gospels" (which originally meant "message" or "news" but came to designate writings about the life and ministry of Jesus), which break up into synoptics, Mark Matthew and Luke which treat the ministry of Jesus in a similar way from a similar point of view and John which presents a calender of Jesus' preaching 3 years because 3 passovers - Paul becomes a missionary and sees the expansion of the Christian world from Palestine north and west (counterclockwise) to Rome (and beyond?) - it also expands to Egypt and North Africa and up through Spain (towards Britain), and eastward towards India - Jewish Bible, also called "Tanakh" (see separate "handout") - pseudepigrapha meaning writings "falsely ascribed" to someone - many relative terms within this discussion Judaism or Judaisms and Christianity or Christianities because many different points of view - "heterodoxy" ("different viewpoint") is a nicer term than "heresy" --- Class #2 (15 September 1998) By Emily M Jaffee - Start backwards -- Move from the modern period back into the early period back to around the mythical year "0" (the turn of the era) - Judaism - key in that period because Christianity develops from the religion and culture of Judaism - Christianity becomes more "gentile" which just means non-Jewish - cover Christian origins up to 180 CE or so because around 180 CE we begin to get a greater wealth of connected details about Christianity and some of its major representatives; prior to that we mostly have fragments - so we are dealing with only a few pieces of a much larger puzzle - in 325 CE Council of Nicea took place in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) - it brought together representative leaders from much of the Christian world making it highly "ecumenical" ("world-wide" to some extent) - ecumenical coming from the Greek term "household" -- broader than any single region - the council dealt with the problem of Arius and Athanasius -- both were leaders in Christian churches in Greek speaking Egypt (Alexandria) - by the time of Nicea the concept of Jesus as God was mainstream thinking as well as Jesus as divine son of God, but how God the Father related to God the Son was at issue - tri unity -- Father, Son and Holy Spirit -- the trinity - Arius argued that ultimately only God existed and his first creation was his son who then created all else - Athanasius took the stance which became mainstream to say that all members of this trinity always existed and that the labels of Father and son are merely relational not chronological in language - by 325 Christians no longer had to fight as much for existence in the Roman world, and they were often found fighting within themselves - between 325 and 380 these two positions fight for power - 303 CE Christian in a main city in the Roman empire could be persecuted - Roman emperorship changed to Constantine the Great around 306 - Constantine was exposed to Christianity in childhood and is said to have had visionary experiences therefore around 313 he issues an edict gave Christians rights to practice openly and legally - in the next 60 years Christianity became the not only tolerated but favored religion - Council of Nicea shows a united front -- ecumenical -- Constantine saw the advantage of showing the world the bond of Christians - Julian "the Apostate" tried to supress Christianity around 361 and bring back paganism but he died in battle and his crusade also died - In the East Constantine created Constantinople the new Rome in the Roman "Byzantine" empire until the 15th cent - from 5th c. break up into the Latin (west) and Greek (east) worlds in which Latin/Roman Catholic and Greek/ Eastern Orthodox flourished - in the west law (a Roman preoccupation) becomes a major focus -- emphasis on laws and doctrines - in the east greater variety -- "liturgy" becomes a main focus - 1520 Protestant Reformation in protest of certain perceived problems in the Latin/Roman Catholic Church - Martin Luther major figure in movement challenging Catholicism -- tries to put the authority of the scripture above the authority of the accumulated traditions, etc. - Protestantism -- out of this came a proliferation of groups -- Lutherans, Baptists, Presbyterians etc. - because different readings and interpretations of the text were permitted, producing different practices and ideas; e.g. the Baptists baptize people when they are adult and aware vs. infants - Catholics also reformed at this time giving more prominence to the text without losing authority of the clergy - all changes affect attitudes towards text/tradition and in the east no analogous "reformation" so more focus on tradition - Luther made distinctions in the biblical canon and argued that certain portions of scripture have less authority than others (e.g. Epistle of James) - canon -- collection of scriptural books considered authoritative - Classical Christianity (Latin and Greek) accept the Jewish "Apocrypha" as canonical, while Protestant Christians do not (see separate chart) - dozens of Protestant denominations developed out of the Reformation - Protestants say every individual has the right to interpret scripture not just the clergy - this idea spiraled out of control encouraging the creation of denominations with relatively more structure - Martin Luther taught scripture and had many objectives in seeking reforms - developments in modern period such as archeology as a science, theory of evolution could have been huge blows to all of Christianity but the reforms of Protestant trad created an opening which lessened the blow - In Protestant trad. lots of emphasis on canonical scripture lessens interest in the early period of Christian development apart from NT - RC trad. deals with this early material not only NT i.e. Mary is important to them as an "advocate before God" so there is a great wealth of materials not found in NT about Mary but Protestants objected to this because Jesus was viewed as the "one mediator" - CREEDS meaning "beliefs" (Latin "credo" = "I believe") - development of creeds as institution is a password to test to see who agrees with you - the Nicean Creed - one God -- father and maker - one Son -- incarnation, life, death, resurrection all in the physical world - one Holy Spirit - one church - Apostle's creed - covers basically the same points, scholars say that it was created around late 100s - the Nicean creed clearly shows the polemics between Arius and Athanasius using biblical language with a twist to exlude the Arian interpretation; e.g. the Son is "begotten not made," to emphasize the relational not chronological or generative link to God the Father - Gnostic Christians believe ultimate God did not create world -- spiritual being only - therefore they would not say the Nicean creed because God is not maker to them - Dualism - ultimate spiritual entity vs. secondary creator of matter - both Arius and Athanasius agree Jesus is divine Son but issues come in with the eternal existence of Jesus - Gnostics say Jesus only appears or seems to exist physically, but he's here for the purpose of leading humans from the material world to spiritual salvation - Creeds affirm what is considered important and reject what is felt to be false -- they often reflect inner Christian debates --- Class #3 (17 September 1998) By Joe N. Savage jr. (jsavage@sas.upenn.edu) Geographical Overview (see Harnack's map) Christianity spreaded from Palestine to part of the Mediterranean world (from Jerusalem counter-clockwise to Rome) via the missionary efforts of Paul. At some point it reached as far as Spain. It is not clear whether or not it reached as far as England by 180 ce. Evidence shows that Christianity arrived early in Alexandria, Egypt. However, the source from which it arrived is unknown. The earliest attested form of Christianity in Alexandria was a heterodox "gnostic" type. Two major "mainstream" Christian writers in Alex. around the end of our period (200 ce) were Clement Alex. and Origen. This city became a major site for producion of Christian literature. The works of Tertullian (in Latin) show Christianity present in N. Africa around 200 ce, although Tertullian himself became a "Montanist" Christian in his later life, which slightly tarnished his image. Christianity also spread to the East with "Doubting Thomas" (Judas the Twin) and his disciples as the key figures in the tradition. However, there is no reliable historical information for how this came about. Nag Hammadi: site in Egypt where gnostic writings in the Coptic language (e.g. Sayings Gospel of Thomas) have been found in recent times (ca 1947). Some Important People (mini-Biographies), from ca 200 ce Irenaeus: originally from Asia minor; reported on the traditions he learned; became a Bishop at Lyon in southern France; wrote a 5 volume work against heresies (gnostics); wrote the first coherent preserved account of gnosticism from an opponents point of view. Clement of Alexandria: spent the last part of his life in Alex.; mentored by Pantaenus; may not be a reliable source for what Alexandrian Christianity was before he arrived because of influences from his non-Alexandrian background and from Pantaenus, who also came to Alexandria late in life. Origen of Alexandria: first Christian known to engage in any type of texual criticism of Jewish scriptures ("Hexapla"); developed the "allegorical" approach to interpretation. (Philo: Jewish Alexandrian writer; was a contemporary w/ Jesus and Paul; left many writings, influenced Clement Alex. and Origen.) Tertullian: contemporary of Clement Alex. & Irenaeus; lawyer; resided in Carthage (North Africa); joined the Montanist Christian group which emphasized eschatology; wrote against the Marcionites; became a major source for information regarding the Marcionites. Hippolytus: non-native of Rome; left lots of writings, including a major "Refutation of Heresies." By the end of the 2nd century we begin to get relatively more information on various individual Christian authors and their ideas. The works of these authors survived largely because they were all seen as part of the FILTERing process that led to classical Christianity. The main "heresiologists" (opponents of "heresy") among them were Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Hippolytus (see also Justin, below). An earlier key figure around 150 CE: Justin the Martyr: died in 165; 2 major writings survive 1. "Dialogue w/ Trypho the Jew"; Jewish/Christian polemics 2. "Apology"; a defense of Christianity before Roman rulers Justin also mentions writing a work against Marcion, but this has not been preserved; native of Samaria, it is believed he was not Jewish or Samaritan since he claims to be "not circumcised," thus a "Gentile"; went to Ephesus; ends up as a teacher in Rome; taught the Christian apologist Tatian (from the Persian gulf area). Creed as filter: belief (credo = "I believe") -- "heretical" ideas are often the target of credal formulations. Canon as filter: collection of authoratative "scriptural" books -- See chart on Web; as canon develops, various other books are excluded. --- Class #4 (22 September 1998) By Michael Zbiegien (zbiegien@sas.upenn.edu) Jewish Christianity and Gnosticism "canon" -- causes problems because in the world of scrolls they could not visualize a codex book (collection of contents of many scrolls into a single Bible) as we do; the process of collecting "scriptural" writings into a "canon" involves selection and also exclusion. different English translations of the Bible KJV (Authorized Version, or "King James Version")-1611 RV/ASV (Revised Version and American Standard Version)-1881-1901 RSV (Revised Standard Version)-1946-1952 NRSV (New Revised Standard Version)-1989 All of these translations are trying to produce something which can be easily read in public services When making a case for a key passage use 2 or 3 translations. Types of Christianity Jewish Christianity- attempt to maintain Jewish customs and identity while believing Jesus to be the expected Messiah ("Christ") mainstream-what becomes approved or commonly accepted, also known as Gentile Christianity, "orthodoxy," "classical" Christianity Gnostic-"dualism" in which the ultimate and true God is different from the God of the physical/material world ("creator God"); Jesus comes to save the fragmented sparks of the spiritual world that have become "captive" in the physical world and in humans Justin says that it wasn't a problem to have Jewish Christians; a problem only arises when they insist on all Christians also being Jews. "proto-orthodoxy" is the period prior to the 4th century, before Christianity became legal/official, before common practices and ideas ("theology") became standardized 313 & 325 CE- toleration and firming up of Christianity under Constantine; virtually all Christianity is gentile by this time; some nasty attitudes towards Jews are present, biblical canon is almost fully developed, more developed creeds, more forceful exclusion of "heretics." Council of Nicea in 325 marks a radical about-face by Roman rulers -- Constantine attends and even participates (Arius vs Athanasius on christology -- what is the exact relationship of God the Father and God the Son?). Heresy originally referred to a subgroup, as the subgroup of Pharisees within Judaism; but it comes to refer to a false option. Paul comes to Christianity with expectations of the end times -that God's message will blossom and be accepted by non-Jews docetism-Jesus only appeared to be human, but was not actually human -form of gnosticism gnostics-Jesus represents the ultimate God, not the creator, and thus does not have a real physical body (or some variation of this) -it is declared heretical Jewish Christians- Jesus is designated Messiah for living exemplary life, or will be designated Messiah in the future --- Class #5 (24 September 1998) By Darryl Olczak Judaism from 300 BCE to 200 CE The reason for this period is because we go FROM Alexander the Great (died 323) who united eastern Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf ("Babylonia") areas in his empire, with the common language Greek. And we go past 135 CE, the end of the reign of the Roman emperor Hadrian who changed the name of Jerusalem to Aelia Capitolina and made it into a "hellenistic" city, to about 200 CE when the development of Orthodox or Rabbinic Judaism in Palestine and Babylonia is underway. "Hellenistic" - extends or reflects Greek culture (e.g. under Alexander the Great) after the classical Greek period. Two Jewish Revolts against Rome: FIRST - 66-73 CE Jews were exiled from Jerusalem. SECOND - 132-35 when the name was changed to Aelia Capatolina. The destruction of the Temple was in 70 CE. Even after the destruction, the Christians still complained about Jewish sacrifices and Temple rituals, often by reiterating outdated anti-Jewish polemics. Alexander the Great and his armies sweep eastward. He dies at a young age. When he dies his empire get split up between his generals. We will look mostly at Seleukis' empire. The primary city was the city of Antioch. The Seleukid empire was giant and difficult to defend, extending at its largest from Asia Minor to beyond the Persian Gulf. Ptolemy- generates the Ptolemaic empire in Egypt which is basically the Nile river with Alexandria as its main city. Jerusalem and Palestine were caught between these two empires. Antiochus IV - takes over the Seleukid empire in 175 BCE. He tries to gain more stability. He pushes worship of Dionysus (Greek God). He tries to slim down the diversity of the empire. He saw that the Jerusalem Temple was dedicated to the Jewish God, who functioned much like the Greek God Zeus, so he ordered that it be dedicated to Zeus as well. Some Jewish leaders did not like this idea and caused the Maccabean or Hasmonean revolt. It was partly a civil war as well as a war with Antiochus. The Seleukid and Ptolemaic empires were both Greek. The Jews in Palestine were a sort of buffer zone between the empires. The independent Jewish Hasmonean/Maccabean kingdom lasts from 165-63 BCE; Rome gradually takes over much of the Mediterranean world in this period, and finally annexes politically unstable Palestine as well. Egypt holds out until about 25 BCE. Herod the Great - A Jewish Ruler, under Rome's sponsorship, who gains power about the same time as Augustus (30 BCE) and dies in 4 BCE. Augustus marks the start of the Roman Empire (the end of the Republic) and brings peace to a very troubled world. He dies in 14 CE. Maccabean leaders were priests but not of the current leadership, which led to some problems. By about 141 BCE the Hasmonean leader declared himself both "high priest" and "king" -- functions traditionally separated in Jewish history. Herod the Great - Becomes the ethnic king. He was a good king in that that he ran a tight ship and kept things together. But he was also ruthless when he felt threatened, and even killed one of his favorite wives and some of his children because he feared that they were going to rebel and take over the throne. After Herod's death in 4 BCE, his kingdom was split among his heirs, and one son, Archelaus ruled in Judea. By 6 CE there was a petition to get rid of him. Rome therefore sent a prefect, a Roman appointed by the Emperor, not a local or ethnic leader. PILATE - who was prefect from 26 to 36, is key piece of evidence for dating Jesus' death. After the second revolt in 132, Judaism had centers in Palestine (under Rome) and in Babylon (under Parthia), as well as being scattered throughout the rest of the hellenistic world. Palestinian Judaism is still part of the hellenistic world. Languages - In most of the eastern Mediterranean, even under Rome, Greek remains the primary language. Latin is quite secondary. Semitic is a language family which includes Hebrew and Aramaic. Aramaic was the main language of the Persian empire, and continued under the Parthians. In Palestine, the main language of many Jews was Aramaic or Hebrew. Josephus - is one of the few extant ancient Jewish authors from this area and period. We get most of our detailed information from him. He lived from 37 CE to after 100. --- Class #6 (29 Sept. 1998) By Rebecca M Fenigstein (rmf@sas.upenn.edu) VARIETIES OF JUDAISM IN GRECO-ROMAN WORLD (PRIESTS as a special class associated with the Temple) SAMARITANS (sometimes viewed as "Jews") SADDUCCEES PHARISEES ESSENES ZEALOTS ("4th Philosophy" in Josephus) SICARII (closely related to Zealots) THERAPEUTAE (mentioned only by Philo, in Alexandria area) OTHER, such as the Herodians, Hemerobaptists, etc. During the time period which we are dealing with, Judaism was dispersed throughout the Mediterranean and Babylonian area, and little is known about the denominations in those areas. The subsets of Judaism enumerated above (except Therapeutae) existed in the area whcih the ancients called Palestine (presently Israel, Jordan, Syria, and environs). Priests: Various levels of priests were associated with the Temple (destroyed in 70 CE), performing various functions. Josephus was actually born into a priestly family, and tried out various options in Judaism, until he ultimately identified with the Pharisees in his public activities. Samaritans: Subset of tradition of ancient Israel, inhabiting Samaria which is north of Jerusalem. Samaria was the capital city of the northern kingdom (the northern remnant of the united kingdom which existed under King David and his son Solomon). The Samaritans do not identify themselves as "Judahites" (Jews) historically, but are very similar in traditions and practices (and may have been considered "Jewish" by the Romans). They differ from Judaism proper by locating their Temple on Mt. Gerizim, not Jerusalem/Zion. In terms of their eschatology, they believed that a Moses-type divine agent, the Taheb (Restorer), would return to the earth to set things straight. The Samaritans still exist, and accept the Pentateuch (five books of Moses) as authoritative, but also have a different sort of written tradition with more focus on Joshua. Sadducees: The name probably is derived from Zadok, a former high priest, and thus Sadducees are the followers of Zadok. Josephus considered this an elitist group, closely associated with the Temple and priesthood (although not all priests were Sadducees). The Sadducees focused especially on the written law as authoritative (in contrast to Pharisees), and thus achieved some flexibility in their practices with regard to things not covered by their scriptures. The Sadducees seem to have had no concrete eschatological expectations, although some of them may have believed in some sort of immortality of the soul. Pharisees: Derived from either the word "separatists" or followers of Persian influence. The Pharisees identified with people in normal life, and devoted themselves to guarding both the written (scriptural) and oral traditions, especially as pertaining to "halakah" (how to live), and hence living lives of the utmost religious purity (they distinguished between themselves and the people who were more ignorant and less devoted by calling them "Am Ha'aretz," a derogatory term meaning people of the land). Because the Pharisees appealed to both the written and oral traditions, their practices were more adaptable to time and circumstance. Christian sources describe their eschatology as a belief that the Messiah will come and bring the righteous and the wicked to judgement, and will allot rewards and punishment accordingly. Angels also fight on behalf of the righteous people, and oppose the activities of Satan and his associates. Christians beliefs about Joshua/Jesus as Messiah are very similar. The Sadducees and the Pharisees were in the center of social activity and life. Josephus and early Christian sources are the basis for most of the information on the Sadducees and the Pharisees in this period. Essenes: Several conjectures as to the origins of this name. Philo says that this term designates the groups' focus on being holy and pious (Greek "hosios"). Another theory is that "Essenes" comes from the Hebrew word "asah" which means "to do" -- and these were doers of the law in a devoted way. The Essenes were ascetics, and retreated from society and from procreation (with some possible exceptions). The Essenes are also often identified with the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls, a literary and pious people, unhappy with what they saw happening in the Temple of their time. They have roughly the same eschatology as the Pharisees, and according to the Dead Sea Scrolls, they believed that they were living in the end times. Zealots: The Zealots were a group zealous for G-d, and consequently zealous in their political rebellion against the Romans. Their enemies could compare them to terrorists. The Sicarii may have been a subset of the zealots, and this word means dagger, for these were the "dagger people," engaging in terrorist practices (as described by Josephus). Therapeutae: Philo explains that this Greek derived word means "healers" and/or "servants." These people could heal the soul with a message, and could heal the body with power. They were the servants of G-d, and lived in an isolated area west of Alexandria. In Philo's description, the Therapeutae have much in common with Philo's Essenes. --- Class #7 (1 October 1998) missing --- Class #8 (6 October 1998) missing --- Class #9 (8 Oct 1998) By Chris Sliwinski SYNOPTIC PROBLEMS - Resurrection Accounts - not all followers of Jesus saw him with a focus on his death and resurrection as being central - some felt that he was simply a great teacher For the lecture today we focussed on the web page for RELS 435 (Resurrection), which compared the accounts surrounding the death and resurrection of Jesus in each of the 4 Gospels. There were also comparisons to various other writings, such as the Gospels of Peter and Nicodemus. The goal was to compare and contrast the similarities and differences of these writings and the traditions behind them. PRIOR TO THE DEATH OF JESUS - what he says Mark - Jesus predicts that he will precede his disiples into Galilee after he rises Matthew - (same as Mark) Luke - no specific information about where he will be (modification of Mark, for those who see Mark's account as basic to Matt and Luke) John - includes a vague reference to departure, not at all like the synoptic tradition ("Where I am going, you may not now follow...") INSTRUCTIONS AT THE EMPTY TOMB Mark - has an abrupt ending in the oldest manuscripts - makes it difficult to get the full picture because it ends so suddenly; possible that what followed got lost or was never written (3 endings for Mark's Gospel are supplied in the extant manuscripts by later copyists to fill the lacuna -- short, long, and middle). The women came to the tomb. They saw a man (human or superhuman - it's not clear) saying that they would see him in Galilee as he told them (see above - "He precedes you into Galilee...") The women then left without saying anything because they were afraid. Perhaps the original gospel ended here. Matthew - account is almost the exact same as Mark's is except that the women go and tell the disciples, and Jesus does in fact appear to them in Galilee (and nowhere else). Gospel of Peter - says that the disciples were told that Jesus arose as he said and "departed there whence he was sent" (compare GJohn!). Luke - "man" appears to the women and says "... Remember how he told you, while he was still in Galilee, that the Son of Man... and on the third day rise again." As we noted, the earlier "prediction" by Jesus of his anticipated troubles does not specify an appearance in Galilee. (In Luke/Acts, Jesus appears only in Jerusalem and not in Galilee.) John - there is no voice or person at the empty tomb with instructions - only Peter and the unnamed disciple go to the empty tomb after Mary Magdalene tells them that Jesus is not there - they saw and believed G. Nicod. - "he is not here... has risen as he said... is in Galilee..." - the guards later report that the angel told them that Jesus has risen and is in Galilee ----- APPEARANCES TO THE DISCIPLES/APOSTLES Mark - in one of the endings to this gospel, says that later Jesus was eating with them and after speaking to them was taken into Heaven Matthew - the 11 disciples went to Galilee to the mountain where Jesus had ordered them - Jesus then gave the "great commission" (literally, "when you go, make disciples of all nations...") - there is no hint that they saw him before they went to Galilee Luke - no hint that he appeared to anyone in Galilee - the Emmaus appearance is in the Jerusalem vicinity; the disciples returned to Jerusalem and Jesus stood before them - while he blessed them, he departed from them John - what appears to be the original ending (chapter 20) has its focus in Jerusalem, over the space of at least a week's time; the "appendix" (chapter 21) moves the scene to Galilee! G. Nicod - Jesus and his disciples were sitting (in Galilee) on Mount Mamilch - while he spoke to them, he was taken into Heaven ----- ** There are major differences, in time and place, in these writings - this is less noticeable in popular Christian use, where they all tend to be harmonized (Jesus first appeared in Jerusalem, then went to Galilee, etc.) ** This probably represents early geographical rivalry between followers in Galilee (which is where Jesus and his first followers apparently came from) and followers in Jerusalem, whence Luke may have derived much of his information on these matters ** There is also a question between the time of the appearance and the disappearance - how long Jesus remained with his followers after he rose from the dead. (In some gnostic traditions Jesus taught for 3 & 1/2 years after he rose - this is already mentioned by Clement of Alexandria.) ----- Other points: - mode of crucifixion - at this time Jesus' "crimes" would call for crucifixion if the Romans were responsible; probably stoning would be the equivalent Jewish punishment (see the Stephen story in Acts 6-7) - while he was on the cross, a spear was thrust into his side according to one tradition - blood and water flowed, suggesting to some modern interpreters that he had already expired (much more quickly than normal) - since the earliest Christians were Jewish, it is possible that they didn't want it to seem like the Jewish leaders put Jesus to death and thus tended to place blame on the Romans - a few years later Jesus' brother James was stoned Why? For what? And why wasn't Jesus killed in the same way? Finally: - Who was there (of Jesus' followers) to report what had happened? And why were women reporting in this society (instead of men/male disciples)? --- Class #10 (13 October 1998) By Walter Rice Dating Jesus' Life ------------------ Most significant datum that we have is the prefecture of Pontius Pilate. Pilate is a non-native, non-Jewish, Roman put there by the emperor, and he stayed for a relatively long time -- 11 years from 26-36 CE. The accounts of Jesus' death that supply such information are unanimous that it happened during the term of Pilate. Thus our "terminus ad quem" is 36 CE, with the end of Pilates term. The "terminus a quo" is sometime before the death of Herod in 4 BCE (i.e., Jesus' life can be dated within the span of 4 BCE - 36 CE). Dating of Ministry -- Luke sets the beginning of Jesus' ministry when Jesus was "about" 30 years old, and also provides references to officials of the time. From John, we get the span of Jesus' ministry, about 3 years. So a widely accepted conclusion, based on uniting these different traditions, is that Jesus was crucified when he was about 33. Birth -- Luke places the birth of Jesus after a census, but the only external evidence we have from other sources of such a census is in 6 CE, which conflicts with the claim in both Matthew and Luke that Jesus was born before the death of Herod the Great in 4 BCE. Some think that an earlier census is referred to in Luke, and from this one reference, some have formulated theories such as the Romans took a census every 10 years, etc. There is no corroborating evidence of this. Another item looked at for dating the birth is the occurrence of a large celestial event to explain the "star in the east," which some scholars have used to push the date back to 7 BCE. Jesus' Death ------------ Jesus' death is set after the Jewish Passover according to the synoptic gospels, since he eats passover dinner with the disciples on Thursday -- Maundy Thursday to some ("maundy" from the Latin mandata, mandate -- referring to the commandment in GJohn 15.12 to "love one another"). Because the Jewish calendar is lunar based (with a solar adjustment every third year), holidays move to different days of the week from year to year. Trying to match the days as mentioned in the Gospels, some have concluded that the events could have taken place on in 27, 30, or 33 CE during the term of Pilate. We also have indications, however, of an alternate (solar) Jewish calendar of 364 days (divisible by 7, for equal 52 weeks -- divisible by 4 for seasons of 91 days, each season 3 months of 30 days plus one holiday). The idea is that under the solar calendar, Passover would start after Tuesday sunset, giving more time for the otherwise hectic sequence of events leading up to Jesus' crucifixion. [[Incidentally, the tradition in GJohn does not identify Jesus' last meal with the disciples as a passover meal, but instead has Jesus removed from the cross at about the time the passover lambs are being slaughtered -- see GJohn 19.14 and 31 (compare Paul in 1 Corinthians 5.7!).]] "Brothers and Sisters" of Jesus ------------------------------- All of the Gospels, and other sources, mention brothers (and sisters) of Jesus, and some "scenes" regarding these also include his mother Mary. [[Jacob/James "the brother of the Lord" and Judas Didymus Thomas ("the twin") are two of the more famous alleged kinfolk of Jesus.]] Catholic tradition came to maintain the continued (perpetual) virginity of Mary, and to interpret the "brothers" of Jesus as half-brothers by Joseph in a previous marriage. This is also similar to the view of the Eastern Orthodox church. By the 4th and 5th centuries, some Catholic interpreters extended perpetual virginity also to Joseph, and in that context "brothers" became cousins. Catholic traditions also extended the idea of a pure birth, untainted by original sin, back to Mary, which is referred to as the "immaculate conception" (of Mary; not the same as the "virgin birth" of Jesus). Protestants tend to believe that Mary had other children by Joseph after the birth of Jesus -- the passage in GMatthew 1.25 states that Joseph and Mary did not have relations until after the birth of Jesus. This would seem to imply that Mary and Joseph did have relations later, but those for whom Mary is "ever-virgin" offer other interpretations of this passage. Anti-Jewish Developments ------------------------ "May His blood be on us and our children" is found in Matthew, but not in Mark. Does this indicate a trend toward anti-Jewish Christianity? or is it just part of an older tradition that was omitted in Mark? It is true that later Christian sources are explicitly more anti-Jewish than earlier sources. In the past few decades, Christianity has become very selfconscious of this phenomenon and has explored ways to negate anti-Jewish themes -- tends many times to be an attempt to explain themselves out of prior embedded attitudes. One example is the discussion of the Greek word for "Jews" (Ioudaioi), which in some passages probably refers more to the geographic region of Judea (thus "Judeans") rather than to worldwide "Judaism" in general. Example of how traditions develop in relation to cultural interests -- Little Red Riding Hood -- in the older versions, grandma gets eaten by the wolf. Story develops to get grandma rescued from the wolf's stomach (she is an innocent participant) -- even later, grandma hides in a closet or under the bed (how could she survive in a wolf's stomach? Yetch!). Stories in early Christianity developed similarly, reflecting the conditions of the time of retelling. And as Christianity became more of a "Roman" world phenomenon, it is not surprising that "the Jews" came more to symbolize the enemy. Focus on Sayings, not events ---------------------------- Both within the Gospels and in other sources, it is clear that early Christians focused on recording the teachings of Jesus -- particularly with the earliest impetus of end of world expectations. Thus many events in the Gospels may have been reconstructed from sayings, because little attention was paid at the time to record the actual sequence of events. As waiting for the end subsides, push for different kinds of materials grows -- to provide a history, a textbook, etc. For the last words of the class, I'll quote verbatim -- "Go home" --- Class #11 (15 October 1998) missing --- Class #12 (20 October 1998) By Emily M Jaffe The initial discussion focused on the second part of the "Overview" section of the class home page for RelSt 435, which is accessed most easily through the instructor's home page or independently as The Sayings/Events underlying the Jesus tradition -- don't start with connective narrative, which most probably is a later stage of editing, but look at individual items -- themes: Jewish law - circumcision, kashrut what Jesus said to certain individuals Jesus talking about end times interesting to see how these themes come together into larger collections i.e. Luke/Matthew -- sermon on: plain/mount -- Matthew sermon on the mount becomes source for the Lord's Prayer, although in that sermon, the prayer seems to be a "late" insertion into the surrounding material attitudes: Matthew says "blessed those who hunger for righteousness" Luke says "blessed the hungry, cursed those who aren't" two different applications (abstract, economic) of same words ** Critical-historical themes: not when, where or what setting, but WHETHER Jesus might have done or said it... Eschatological -- things related to an end; life, world, end time Apocalyptic -- revelation, particular way of viewing escatology using crisis language imagery, graphic language e.g. rivers turning to blood etc. Palestine 1st century many people had escatological thoughts besides Jesus as evidenced in the Dead Sea Scrolls Two major ways of looking at Jesus: A. Ehrman, Kraft, Schwitzer (spelling?) -- Jesus as apocalyptic eschatological preacher, messenger -- Schwitzer said Jesus was wrong because the end didnt' come but that Jesus' language about the end appeals to all because we all have personal endings B. Jesus Seminar in their Five Gospels say that Jesus was not an apocalyptic preacher but a teacher of ethics, mystic, social/politcal figure ASSUMPTIONS -- Jesus as product of his time: -- 1st century Palestinian Judaism --> apocalyptic mode -- 1st century cynic/stoic --> greek concerns as opposed to Jewish concerns - being in touch with nature, reasonable, natural, timeless, on-going - saw world as totality --> God is the everything with principles - laws of nature are reasonable and people need to see message in this - cynic preachers who say get in touch with rationality and save people from themselves i.e. be as good as can in God's world because the "Kingdom of God is within you" - "Sabbath not made for man, man made for sabbath" Are these the focus of Jesus or the focus of the people collecting the sayings/narrative? could it be that the earliest followers of Jesus apocalyptically oriented therefore transformed their approach to Jesus? Earliest purvayers had influence on what Jesus' self-conscious was -- how much? was Jesus a misunderstood man? Awareness of _Formative Period_ of Christian Origins - Greco-Roman world comes thru in the language (Greek) - when Christianity breaks off consciously from Judaism, negative or positive stance against Judaism? - how Judaism affected by Christianity -- Judaism has give and take with Greco-Roman world? Spiral of Judaism/Christianity -- which plays off the other? - custom of releasing prisoner at Passover comes from Christian text not found anywhere else -- SPIRAL - Luke - census- creates 10 year cycle to place Jesus' birth in context no evidence of earlier census therefore create cycle or discredit Luke _Selectivity_ of early Christian trad. -- doing something to work in their interests -- even Jesus himself may have made choices of focus i.e. Paul concerned with symbol of circumcision as committing to irrelevant set of Jewish laws BUT Jesus said almost nothing on circumcision except in Luke and Thomas saying that God would have made men like that if he really wanted men to be circumcized. Why did Jesus say so little on that topic/ - What was the setting in life that early Christianity resided? context - Unlikely that there was a unified church - a lot of antagonism on what Christianity was and how to interpret it Most of Paul's letters go to groups that he founded and indicate problem of perception. - What were pre-Paulian Christians like? _Language_ scholars argue that Jesus spoke Hebrew or Aramaic or dialects of semitic languages but Greek -- what lang. do earliest followers speak? i.e. Lord's Prayer sins v. debts, language problem Commentators making things up to explain e.g. Camel through the eye of a needle, commentators say rope not camel using language to explain away a problem What's most likely derived from Jesus? If something is attributed to Jesus and not commonplace to Judaism of the time or early Christianity (not placed in his mouth) then most likely authentic i.e. "Only God knows that end" but later people said Jesus knew everything, so they had to explain his words -- this gives a certain authenticity Parallel streams of thought coming from different streams could be early concepts of Jesus Possibility v. Probability --- Class #13 (22 October 1998) By Emily M Jaffe Jesus Synthetic overview Parents - Yosef and Miriam Geneological problem - line of David - where Yosef and Miriam married? - was Yosef real father? - other stories about Mary's rape by Roman soldier - virgin birth History assumes Jesus born but theological problem of whether virgin birth Name - Jesus/Yeshua - high degree of probability this is his real name Birthday - associated with Passover (march/spring) but becomes December 25 later with translation of framework -- beginning of life of messiah and beginning of year tied together -- as Christianity became dominant December picked up as Jesus' birth -- late 4th century -- Christian calender has Jesus dying on Passover Location - Nazareth, Bethlehem, Galillee Native Language - virtually everyone spoke Aramaic but Dead Sea scrolls in Hebrew, but could just be written language and people could have spoken Aramaic some say perhaps Jesus was bi- or even tri-lingual Bar Kochba scrolls from 132-135 CE had all three languages in documents indicating that all languages were used, but who knows what was happening 100 years earlier when Jesus lived Education- no evidence of education was Jesus literate? in Luke Jesus reads from Isaiah in synagogue setting, could have been merely reciting it Infancy Gospel of Thomas -- Jesus in school studying, stories exist about Jesus' childhood and how he ordered his playmate to "drop dead" and the playmate died and Jesus raised him -- Illustrating Jesus' power of nature Occupation - Matthew says his father is a carpenter, not sure whether Jesus followed his father's footsteps Probably Jesus baptized by John Jesus's message closely tied to John the Baptists -- apocalyptic talk Every Christian called Jesus messiah, although he never denied it but he never claimed it for himself either Peter said that Jesus was the messiah Jesus came into conflict with Jewish leaders and Roman leaders Herod upset at Jesus (Jewish) Pilate upset at Jesus (Roman) Romans killed Jesus -- hard because history of ethnic Kings (Herod) replaced by Pilate (Roman), still local leadership of Jewish priesthood intertwined with the Roman leadership Romans pledged allegience to civil Roman religion -- polytheists for the most part Positive and negative -- Pilate wanted to release Jesus, Jews yelled and screamed "no" depicting Jews as forcing Pilate to kill Jesus -- attempts not to take some blame away from the Jews -- both Romans and Jews repsonsible Matthew seen as most Jewish gospel but not always positive stance towards Judaism i.e. Matthew has a Jewish flavor saying "Kingdom of Heaven" instead of "Kingdom of God" because Jews do not say the name of God, but Matthew 23 says beware hypocrites -- anti-certain types Jesus not unique as wonder worker in 1st century -- many people bearers of God's voice, says Josephus -- reactionary of Jewish cults -- eschatological preacher -- how to be ready for God's rule fits into patterns -- followers already oriented to these attitudes and emphasize them --- Class #14 (27 October 1998) missing --- Class #15 (29 October 1998) By Juliet E Galvez Consult the WEB Material for RELS 436 "Life and Letters of Paul" See class-page entry- "Paul's Call": -Paul refers to his experience of joining the Jesus movement as a "call"; he was called to be an apostle (commissioned representative); at that time "apostle" had not taken on the specific meaning of one of the twelve earliest followers of Jesus, but referred more generally to a person "sent out" for a particular reason; Paul consistently uses "apostle" of himself, as the "apostle to the Gentiles" Main Sources: -Galatians: autobiographical information; he states (presses) that he got his information straight from God via a revelation; perhaps suggesting that he was attempting to "show his credentials" in the face of an attack; man called "Cephas" (= "rock," presumably Simon "Peter") in conflict with Paul -Acts: has three different accounts of Paul's call; first the one in the narrative sequence of Acts (7.58-8.3 + 9.1-22), then a flashback while addressing the Jews (21.37-22.21), and finally a flashback while jailed by the Jews and Romans (25.23-26.23); in the 1st and 2nd versions he receives his commission through Ananias; in 3rd version he receives commission while in Temple; the fact that Acts chooses to keep all three provides insights into the aughor's collection style and techniques and benefits to the historian or student Paul's message: end has begun (eschatological, apocalyptic); he uses economic language (resurrection = downpayment); he sees himself as living by appropriating Jesus' resurrection (life "in Christ") but always in danger of being pulled back by the flesh (place where sin operates); says that the "body of Christ" is the collective church living by the spirit of God/Christ -Paul had appeal to both Jewish-oriented and gnostic groups even though they are opposing ideologies; some letters in Paul's name make anti-gnostic statements but gnostics took it and used it for their ideals -Paul dies 64-68? C.E. under Nero in Rome; traditionally by beheading See class-page entry- "Chart of Paul's Eschatological Outlook" History of Salvation: -Start: glory, perfection -first Adam: disobedience, sin -bondage, slavery; Torah (law) until closer understanding -last Adam (Jesus); possibility -Restoration: Jesus' resurrection -obedience, suffering of Jesus' body (his followers) -End: perfection, glory See class-page entry- "Ancient Sources, biographical information" Sources attributed to Paul (7 Groups): 1 -- Galatians, Romans, 1 Corinth., 2 Corinth.: most agree that he wrote these; texts follow the same approach; tend to be preferred because they are primitive (earlier & less developed) in conception of eschatology and community organization, etc. 2 -- Philemon, Philippians, Ephesians, Colossians, Laodiceans: style, language and themes close to group 1; similar language between the five texts; Laodiceans -- if "forged," apparently not to support a theological program 3 -- 1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians: focus on non-fulfillment of eschatological prophecies; some argue Paul wrote 1 but not 2 4 -- 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, 3 Corinthians: Pastoral Epistles (1 Tim., 2 Tim. & Titus) -- addressed to people about heresy and Christian approaches author doesn't agree with; 3 Corinthians -- attributed to Paul (not included in NT); also was embedded in "Acts of Paul"; opposes "gnostic" positions (Paul was embraced by many gnostics) 5 -- Seneca: preserved only in Latin (4th or 5th century); exchange of letters between Seneca (Roman stoic philosopher) and Paul; talks about Jews and Christian persecution after the fire in Rome in 64 ce 6 -- Apocalypse/ Vision, and Apoc. #2 (NHL): both claim to be written by Paul; mystic view; unclear relationship between the two writings 7 -- Prayer of Paul: not really associated literally with any of the other Pauline writings; gnostic groups apparently used this text Secondary Sources about Paul: -Acts of the Apostles (NT): second half is mostly about Paul -Acts of Paul: collection of stories, travels, death -Acts of Peter: Paul and Peter in Rome; Paul leaves for Spain -Martyrdom of Peter and Paul -Ascent of James and Ps-Clementines: attributed to Clement; talk of Paul in negative way -Arabic Excerpts of Jewish Source and related Arabic Muslim Source -Samaritan Chronicle 2 Various Briefer References: -e.g.: 2 Peter 3.15, 1 Clement 5, Ignatius Eph. 12.2, Polycarp Phil. 3.2, Epistle of the Apostles 31-33, Life of Mani 60.12 --- Class #16 (3 November 1998) By Yuriko Horvath Paul's Letter to the Galatians ------------------------------ when written: -determined by the ages of Jesus, and Paul and the events that occured in their life -Paul's positive msg about Jesus probably started about 34-37 ce -Galatians speaks of a period of 14-17 yrs, thus Galatians was written probably between 48-55 ce where written: -Not clear; some have suggested Damascus (1.17) addressed to: -Christian groups in Galatia, central Asia Minor, Anatolia/Turkey reason for writing: -Paul was angry because his authority was being challenged -Paul is answering his opponent's claim to be preachers of Jesus *Paul claims the title of "apostle" (sent one) [see above] 1.1-1.2 : Paul is sent directly by Jesus Christ and God 1.3-1.5 : greeting/blessing-> intro to peace, grace, God, Lord Jesus, sin->sacrifice, evil age->salvation *Christ? - title or indicating Jesus the Messiah * Lord->replaced the tetragramaton, Jewish term, potentially loaded 1.6-1.7 : deserting Christ/Paul to a different msg. 1.8-1.10 : Jesus's msg is unchangeable even if challenged; his msg was not spoken to please man but God 1.11-1.17 : msg is directly from God; Paul had persecuted the church before but then God revealed himself to Paul Once the revelation has occurred, Paul didn't confer with man/apostles but traveled to Arabia then back to Damascus Paul used to be for the tradition of "the forefathers"; Paul's calling deals with the Gentiles *circumcision -> literal or of the heart??? 1.18-2.4 : didn't see anyone for 3 yrs ->traveled to Cephas (15 days); didn't see any apostles other than James; traveled Syria & Cilicia; Paul was unknown in Judea but he heard of himself (& people were glorified because of him); 2.1-2.10 : mention of 14 yrs; companions were Titus & Barnabas; went to Jerusalem by revelation, not forced; told his msg to Gentiles; false brethren are trying to discourage freedom: circumcision = bondage grace = freedom Paul had a msg for the Gentiles and got the go ahead from other pillars in the Christian community; Peter had a msg for the circumcized and Paul had a msg for the uncircumcized and poor; *poor? Ebionites (poor in Jerusalem); 2.11-2.14 : Paul opposed Cephas in Antioch (he was circumcized) because he sat with the Gentiles, then withdrew; Paul gets mad at Barnabas and Cephas for being insincere; *eating with the Gentiles might be seen as making the food unKosher; *use of the term "circumcision party"; 2.15-2.21 : main msg: -get to God through faith in Jesus -to trust in circumcision is futile -through the law the law dies, because the law says that it is a curse to hang on a tree, thus Jesus by his cursed mode of death brought the law to its end since he was sinless 3.1-3.9 : rebukes Galatians for departing from his msg; Galatians received Spirit through faith & now they are leaving Paul's msg for the law or someone else's msg; mentioned Abraham who was reconed righteous due to his faith; Jesus is a fulfillment of Abraham's blessing, who had faith; 3.10-3.14 : people who fail to live by the law are cursed by it; Habbakuk->he through faith is righteous shall live; the law doesn't rest on faith, doesn't give life/righteousness; --- Class #17 (5 November 1998) By Yuriko Horvath Reading Paul's Letters (continued) *"poor" reference: -end of Gal 2 -not necessaraly people who aren't wealthy, the needy; -possibly Ebionites (Ebion, Hebrew term for "poor," became a designation for a Jewish-Christian community, also called Nazareans) -most of what is known about the Ebionites is dated 180CE *Paul takes his stance on Christianity because he thinks the end times have already begun, so he was living in a time of fulfillment where people were looking towards God and didn't need a cultural filter, only faith to reach God *Paul had an experience that told him that his previous stance on Jesus was wrong *Paul believed that Jesus came to earth because people couldn't be rescued from the power of sin, Jesus provided a way of overcoming sin: -Adam & Eve fell from perfection, this resulted in the loss of the image of God, humans also left with death as consequence -in Romans->Adam sins and he dies, death was a punishment for sin, and everyone else after Adam dies, Jesus is resurrected, which is a hope for the rest of us for eternal life, we are now freed from death Back to Galatians: 3.13-3.18 : Jesus becomes a curse for us; wills are not anulled->Abraham & offspring would be saved, as promised in the scriptures; the law came after the promise so it doesn't change the promise; the law isn't perfect because it needs to be mediated; the law doesn't promise life or a way towards life, but it instead consigns to sin 3.22-3.29 : we are all sons of God through faith, no differentiation between types of people who believe; "Messian/Christ" isn't just Jesus, but also includes everyone who believes, thus we are all Abraham's offspring and are heirs of God's promise; 4.1-4.5 : we were before ruled under elemental spirits, slave to the world; Jesus was born under the law to redeem those under the law; 4.6-4.7 : the spirit of God was sent to us, and now we are sons of him and thus and heir to his kingdom 4.8-4.9 : as Gentiles, they had laws which prevented them from knowing God, but Paul was able to bring them to know God, and now they were turning their backs to that knowledge *the law makes people believe they know God through action 4.10-4.15 : when Paul first started to preach, he had a physical ailment, he was possibly temporarily blind --- Class #18 (10 November 1998) By Frank Swietnicki -Today the class attempted to finish it's discussion on Paul. -See the chart on Paul on RelSt 436 home page -Spans from the Creation to the End -End for Paul is when God may be all in all ("God may be everything to everyone") -Perfectness of Adam and Eve will be reached at end time -Mankind falls to another level through sin -Flesh = occasion in which Death and Sin operate -Through obedience of Faith one can get back to origonal level. -Done while flesh survives -Bottom line view -Paul gets where he gets cause he has a particular view of Judaism and eschatology -Paul makes much use of Jewish arguments -There is a rift between what Paul thinks and the thinking of other Jews -For Paul salvation does not take place solely on the basis of Law -Look at passages -Galatians Chapter 5 -5.1 Freedom, Christ sets free -What Jesus has done in end time breaks down barrier between Gentile and Jew -Paul gets pissed off at times and wishes his enemies would castrate themselves (personal note, Paul is one bad mother!) -Don't use freedom for flesh -See 5.19 and 5.20 -6.11 -Paul is writing in his own hand -Fighting against opponents that advocate circumcision -1st Corinthians -15th chapter -Closer to practical part of Galatians -Everyone agrees that Messiah was raised, therefore everyone will be raised -Around 15.6, reports some resurrection appearances that didn't make it into the canonical stuff -Quote of the Day from Paul -"Bad Company Ruins Good Morals" --- Class #19 (12 November 1998) By Ruth K Rothman The following sites may be helpful to this class. http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/ or http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/humm/ Both belong to Alan Humm, a graduate student in religious studies. We looked at Paul's letter to Laodicea which is in the Western part of Turkey (Asia Minor, Anatolia). The author of Colossians says to exchange the letter that Paul sent to the Colossians with the one at Laodicea. There is a theme in the letter to Laodiecea of doing the right thing without hesitation. Seneca and Paul also were thought (by some) to have exchanged letters. See the minutes under class 436 for more information. Under the Paul class (436), see biographical information. Paul may be the real name of the figure we refer to as Paul. Calling him "Saul" may be a reference to the first Israelite king who threw spears at David and tried to officiate (a function of priests!) at sacrifices. The author of Acts may have gotten information from antagonists of Paul without realizing it was calumny. In Acts, the name Paul doesn't get associated with his call to be an apostle. At the end of Acts 7, they stoned Steven and Paul is mentioned as Saul. At the beginning of Acts 8, he is also called Saul. In 9:4, the voice asks, "Saul, why do you persecute me?" Then Saul/Paul meets Ananias who had a vision and who calls him brother Saul. In the beginning of Acts 13, he is still called Saul. Later in 13, he is called Paul. However, in 22.7, he is called Saul when the story of the voice questioning the persecutions is repeated. There are three different versions of this story in which he is called Saul. It should be mentioned that it was traditional after an important event to have a change of name. Paul never says where he is from. In Galatians, for example, he identifies especially with Jerusalem but does not give an ancestral home. After he received his call he returned to Damascus, but he doesn't say he's from there, or from Jerusalem or Tarsus. Evidence that Paul had a good education may indicate that his family was wealthy. In 1 Corinthians, there is possible evidence for Paul being married. In some manuscripts of Philippians 4.3, he refers to his (female) "yoke fellow" and exhorts her to bring peace. This is a term used for a spouse. Clement of Alexandria also thinks Paul was married, based on that passage. Some argue that Paul's role as a witness to the stoning of Steven in Acts 6-7 shows that he would have had to be a member of the Jewish "Sanhedrin" (judicial body), and by later tradition, its members had to be married. There is the idea that he is not living with his wife. He believes he is in the end of times. He wants to get rid of worldly things, so a regular formal family relationship would hinder him, and his wife might have agreed with him. Or perhaps the belief that it is the end-times meant marriages are dissolved. There was the necessity to get out the gospel even if he was married. There are no claims that Paul had children. Paul was trained in Judaism. Philippians calls him a Pharisee. The framework of his eschatology fits in with what is known about Pharisees. Acts also identifies him as a Pharisee. He engaged in an unspecified trade, working with his hands. In Acts he is called a tentmaker. Tarsus is located in "Cilicia" (= "hair") in southeast Asia Minor and known for its fabrics of goat's hair. The identification of Paul with Tarsus may have made him associated with tentmaking. Paul's call as an apostle sent him to the Gentiles in various places such as Damascus, Jerusalem, Antioch, Galatia, Ephesus- Troas, Corinth, Athens, Macedonia, and Illyricum. In Acts, God tells Ananias that Paul is called. In Acts, Paul constantly preaches in synagogues to Israelites/Jews. The author of Acts wants Christiantiy to look harmonious within a Greek, Roman, and Jewish world. Paul announces his intention to go to Rome. We don't know if he got there from his letters, but traditions says he was killed in Rome. Nero was the emperor and had him beheaded. The tradition is also fairly strong that he went to Spain. Story of "Where are you going?" (Quo vadis?): This says that Peter started to flee Rome and saw Jesus. One of them says to the other, "Where are you going?" Peter recognizes that he should go back despite the danger, as Jesus is doing. Constantine makes Christianity legal, and his mother fosters the tradition of Christian "relics" (often associated with martyrdom, and/or the death of Jesus) in the early 4th century. In 2 Corinthians 11, Paul is upset about some people who have trespassed upon his territory. He first reached the Corinthians with the gospel and started churches. Then others came, corrupting his communities. They built on the labor that Paul had already done. Paul talks of wanting to go to unreached lands beyond in 2 Corinthians 10.16. In 2 Corinthians 11, he says, with a reference to the Eden story, that he is afraid the thoughts of the people will be led astray. Paul is very sarcastic and is pushing himself to do things. His state of mind is very strange. He says he is not inferior to other apostles in 11.5, but he doesn't necessarily mean the 12 apostles. Paul implies that his opponents accepted the hospitality of the people he had preached to and corrupted them. Paul says that what he did in Corinth was for free and he accepted support from other churches for this purpose. He says he loves them and the others are false apostles. This shows inter-Christian polemics. He says he, like them, is an Israelite, a Hebrew, relates himself to Abraham like they do, and they are still not as good servants of Christ because Paul suffers more and has been in prison more. Paul sees himself in danger from all places and people. --- Class #20 (17 November 1998) By Ruth K Rothman Christianity apart from Paul-non-Pauline and post-Pauline early Christian materials. Why did classical Christianity preserve them? Again, think of filters. There are letters, apocalpyses, etc. This deals with final exam question 4. The New Testament has 13 letters attributed to Paul. "Pastoral Epistles" are addressed to individuals, not communities (as with most other Pauline letters). They are called 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus, addressed to people who are seen as pastors. They are frequently separated from the rest of the Pauline epistles because in content they assume things such as various church officers. They also conatain a certain confrontation between these churches and other early groups involved with Christianity, like gnostic Christianity. There is lots of polemic. The internal evidence (what the writings say) makes it difficult to be confident that Paul wrote them. External evidence is what others say about them; for example, they are not included in the earliest known collection of Pauline letters made by Marcion around 150. Either he didn't have them or he thought they weren't by Paul (because of their anti-gnostic ideas?). 1 Timothy 3 -- near the end of this chapter the author gives a poem/hymn to encapsulate his Christian message. Author of the pastorals talks about a fixed basis of truth or faith, unlike Romans where it was more dynamic and individual. The poem-hymn is followed by a strong statement about opposition in the community. It says some will depart from the faith by giving heed to decietful spirits through statements against marriage and abstaining from certain foods. Gnostics preached against both of these things. Church organization -- chapter 3 -- the author talks about the office of bishop and gives the criteria necessary. He goes on to deacons and women who have roles like deacons. There is the idea of a world where things are sure and fixed. It also gives a good pictures of churches around 125. There may be Pauline fragments in these epistles, but these are likely a generation or two after Paul. Other offices -- presbyters, not mentioned here. How were these people chosen? Probably church by church. At this time, the Roman government was suspicious of secret organizations. Many had to petition governments under a certain rubric for legal standing. This was often as a "funerary society" for Christianity, following Jewish precedents. Later Christians looked for other rationales. Apostolic succession -- authority through association with others, e.g. "I studied with Peter," may have been a way to choose leaders. Other sources indicate more of a charismatic choice. 1 John -- mentions clash between local leaders and traveling ones. Indigenous leadership versus traveling one. Patoral Epistles build upon Paul as a figure of authority for standardized faith. Also, some gnostics gave Paul authority such as Marcion, Valentinus, and Basilides. Paul was caught betwen two approaches to early Christianity. Jewish Christians didn't like him due to his ideas about Jewish Law. But he was accepted as a hero by some anti-gnostics. 3 Corinthians -- didn't make it into the New Testament anthology, although it is written in Paul's name. See Paul course for the text. It is part of an exchange of letters. The Corinthians were writing to Paul. They complain about two men who are subverting faith by teaching that the Jewish prophets aren't necessary, God is not almighty, there isn't resurrection of the flesh, nor did the Lord come into flesh, and the world was formed by angels, not of God. Paul writes back and even if this is a forgery, eschatological elements still remain. There is also a suggestion of cooperation with apostolic authority in Jerusalem. There is a focus on resurrection of the flesh, a focus on Jewish connections. It is an anti-gnostic response, saying that God sent prophets to the first Jews and God created all. However, evil enetered the world. God sent a spirit "by means of fire" so that there would be a fight between the creator-God and the would-be god, Satan. Some gnostic groups say the serpent was the real god. Gnosis, the knowledge that you are gods, in contrast to the creator God who kicked out Adam and Eve. Two groups, the Naasenes and the Ophites, took words for serpent as their titles and revered the role of the serpent in the Eden story (Genesis 1-3). Second Peter and Jude -- General Epistles in the New Testament, also Hebrews. Justin is an apologist trying to get recognition of Christianity by the Romans. Barnabas -- an early Apostolic Father. So were first and second Clement. These were the next generation after the apostles, going up to about 150 ce. They could go back to 70-95 ce. If the Pastoral Epistles date from around 125, they overlap between New Testament writings and Apostolic Father writings such as Didache, Clement, etc. The general Epistles are the rest of the New Testament letters -- 1-2 Peter, 1-3 John, James, Jude. These are not ascribed to Paul, nor is Hebrews, which has the form of a tractate more than an epistle. The book of Revelation rounds out the NT collection. Apologies are writings, that, with one exception, can be identified with a clear author, usually called an "apologist." They include Justin who was important from around 130-165, Tatian, Theopilus from Antioch, and Tertullian (who wrote many other extant texts as well). The primary goal is to get recognition and sanction for Christianity to exist. They talk about their arguments and the ethics of Christianity. "Heresies," including the gnostic writings, should also be mentioned. Gnostic groups did not always agree with each other. Jewish Christianity -- there are no first hand document from this early period, although there are clues from Paul and Matthew, among others. Origen, in the early 200's, says some Ebionites don't believe in the virgin birth, but others do. There are mixed messages. What happened to other early Christians besides the disciples mentioned in Acts (especially Simon Peter, and John) and Paul? Andrew, etc. Why did Christianity expand rapidly and by what agencies? Possible answers include the God fearers already present on the edges of Jewish synagogues. --- Class #21 (19 November 1998) By Mina Mishrikey Pedantia: Written at the end of the 2nd century, Mathetes (pupil, disciple) to Diognetus: The actual manuscript doesn't exist anymore, burned in an accident a century and a half ago, do have edited copies though. Author writing to a patron Diogn 1.1: Acknowledging Diognetus, writing an apology to describe the "religion of Christians," more congenial than defensive. 3: Addresses question of how Christians relate to Jews 3.3: Why sacrifice? 3.5: Lumps Jews w/ Pagans as practicing sacrifice (!) 4.1: People in Greco-Roman world such as author, thought practicing Jews were a little strange concerning their eating habits 4.3: Addresses doing necessary work on Sabbath 4.5: Jews rediculous b/c of their practice of circumcision 4.6: Transition: "That the Christians are right therefore in holding aloof from the common silliness and error of the Jews and from their excessive fussiness and pride, I consider that you have been sufficently instructed; but as regards the mystery of their own religion, don't expect that you can be instructed by man" 5.1,2: Christians don't live in one specific place, speak a particular language, not more intelligent, not philosphers 5.4: "Barbarians"-anybody non-greek; alot of Jewish authors (Josephus, Philo), will speak of constitution of their religion (Moses), this language comes up here. 5.6: Marry, have kids but don't "expose" them, speaking of a custom in the Greco-Roman world of getting rid of unwanted children 5.9: "Their existence is on earth, but their citizenship is in heaven" 5.11: "They love all men, and they are persecuted by all" 5.12: "They are put to death, and yet they are endued with life" 5.9, 11, 12: Poetic cuplets 6.1: "In a word, what the soul is in a body, this the Christians are in the world" 6-10: Describes more closely theology, soul, sin in Christian terms 11: Acknowledges scriptures in 4 cases: law, gospels, prophets, disciples 12.7: "Let your heart be knowledge, and your life true reason, duly comprehend" Shows development of "3rd race," first there were Jews and Pagans, now Christians are also on map. Why wasn't this found in anthologies? Why only one copy kept? Maybe not sophisticated enough. Development of Mutual Hostility Revelation (NT), Didache 16, Mark 13 & parallels (mini apocalypse) 3 different ways in which the end times were handled: (1) Future -- Montanism, (cata)phrygian female leadership; Tertullian (2) Institutionalize -- the hidden kingdom: spirit on earth (3) Internalize -- that which pertains to individuals, and can be realized now. All 3 ways not mutually exclusive Is present in spiritual sense: gnostic viewpoint, already living resurrected life. --- Class #22 (24 November 1998) Film on Paul --- Class #23 (1 December 1998) By Melanie Catrickes Early Christian Apocalypticism -historically speaking, the apocalyptic heritage of Jewish Christianity is a central feature that needed to be resolved as time went on, or Christianity might not have survived (like the Dead Sea Scrolls people) Dead Sea Scrolls -came from those with high end-time expectations -the final war included 7 battles (Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness) God intervenes and wins in the 7th battle -Christianity did leave a surviving imprint in history, the Dead Sea Scrolls (and the group associated with them) did not Apocalypse - means "revelation," with "revealed" truths, especially concerning the end times (eschatology) -Paul instructed to live "as if" the end time was here, apparent imminency in the fact that the end was near, not something in the far future -Didache 16 is a short apoclypse, like a brief summary of a more detailed ending, and describes the final coming of Christ -- the "parousia" ("presence" in Greek). This comes at the end of the body of ethical and communal admonitions -- do the right thing and be ready when Christ comes; antiChrist also is mentioned; Didache is a handbook of conduct, describing the many obstacles and barriers to surviving in these last times Apocalyptic and the Canonical Gospels -MARK 13 (the "little apocalypse") and parallels -Peter, James, John, and Andrew ask Jesus when the end will come, He says to be ready. There will be earthquakes and famines -there is a birth image : the world going through labor pains (the "messianic woes") to bring forth the new creation -there also will be false leaders and messiahs, the sun will darken, stars falling form the heavens, the moon will have no light -there is some similarity with Didache: the immediacy of the end and the false figures -a key term (image) in Jewish apocalyptic literature originating at the time of the Maccabean revolt, is "the abominating desolation" or the "desolating sacrilege" (Mark 13.14; based on the language of Daniel 9.27, 11.31, 12.11), which originally referred to a hellenistic ruler in the early 2nd century BCE, Antiochus Epiphanes, who wanted the Jerusalem Temple to have more general appeal, not narrowly ethnic, so he ecumenized it (and thus corrupted it in traditional Jewish eyes) Other apocalyptic books in Judaism include Enoch and 4th Ezra; lots of Jewish Apocalyptic literature plays a role in the development of eary Christianity PAULINE LETTERS - especially 1st Thessalonians -one has to remain faithful to the instructions -deals with deceased Christians, there is hope beyond them, gives comfort to those whose relatives have died, the dead will rise first, then those who are alive -we share in the death and resurrection of Jesus -it is a classical apocalyptic text -also has imminency like the others: BE READY Christianity produces its own separate apocalypses -The Revelation (Apocalypes) of John, last book in New Testament has both the "form" of an apocalypse (revelation is given to a human, to communicate to others) and contents similar to many other such writings (eschatological materials, with "cosmic" focus) -Apocalypse of Peter -- similar "form," but content is more personal, the fate of individuals, including different layers of Hell (like Dante's Divine Comedy) -Shepherd of Hermas (an "apostolic father") is an apocalypse in "form" (revealed things), but is not eschatological in content --- Class #24 (3 December 1998) By Elizabeth A Figueira The subject discussed in class was the methods early Christian writers used to pass down their system of ethics. It is commonly understood that Christians obtained their ideas from Judaism and the pagan Greek world, although there are few Jewish sources from that time period to substantiate this belief. The existence of many Greek-speaking Jews at the time, however, suggests that those Jews were conversant with the Greek contexts and cultures (e.g. Platonic and Stoic ideals) in which they lived, and that, in turn, Greek Christian writers would have been familiar with such Greek-Jewish moral codes, reinterpreted them and accepted them into Christian instruction. Two attested forms of ethical instruction were the "Haustafel" and the "Two Ways" form. "Haustafel" unfortunately has no simple English equivalent, but it refers to a tablet/plaque that hangs on the wall in a household as a reminder of the proper conduct to be upheld by members of the household, including husbands, wives, children, and servants. The Haustafel also provided guidelines for political figures and religious worshippers. An example can be found in chapter 3 of the Pauline letter to the Colossians, where he offers advice on the appropriate Christian conduct in the household, but does not expand his position to include the political sphere. 1 Peter does provide a more recognizable example of the Haustafel form in Chapters 2 and 3. The purpose of writing these lists of ethics is to help the recipiants of the letter to remain faithful to Jesus although they are existing in times of suffering. Chapter 2 tells Christians to love their community and obey their King as a means to avoid persecution and encourage others to believe. Servants/slaves are also advised to obey their masters in order to remain good Christians. Chapter 3 discusses behavior in the household, addressing all members. The husbands should set a good example, treat their wives fairly, and in general love their family. Women should refrain from expensive clothing or jewelry; instead choosing to adorn soul by wearing simple dress and having faith. Finally children should respect their parents and obey them. The "Two Ways" form is found in the Dead Sea Scrolls as well as Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Didache. The two ways are described using different pairs of opposing words, and it is an issue of scholarly debate whether the different words actually convey the same basic idea. Examples include light/dark, good/evil, and life/death. The Didache also discusses the existence of "fences" by which peripheral commandments are established in order to prevent a person from breaking one of the central commandments. This is similar to some Jewish developments -- e.g. in order to prevent someone from taking the Lord's name (the "tetragrammaton" or 4 lettered special name of the God of Israel, sometimes written YHWH and pronounced "Yahweh" or even "Jehovah") in vain, a "fence" was developed to forbid writing the name or using it in conversation. Thus by forbidding the practice of magic or sorcery, Didache avoids placing faith in anyone but the one true God. In the Two Ways traditions, the commandments are stated in both the positive and negative forms, which offers some interesting topics of discussion. Forbidding one thing can be quite different from stating what should be done. In conclusion, we recognized that the ethics chapters in various documents are often repackaged values taken from the existing surroundings (usually by way of Judaism) and reinterpreted in relation to Jesus and early Christianity. --- Class #25 (8 December 1998) By Elizabeth A Figueira Today we discussed material straight from the syllabus on the class home page: 5.1.4 Christian Approaches to Jewish Scriptures (Since the biblical canon was still in flux, "scriptures" means any "authoritative" writings accepted by the interpreters) 1. Literal -- the "surface" meaning 2. Allegorical -- not the obvious interpretation 3. Ethical -- instructing how to lead one's life 4. Eschatological -- focusing on the end-times 5. Christological -- what does it say about the Christ? 5. [Etc.] Sometimes interpretations can be stretched very far beyond what is "normal" in a given context, and approaches can overlap. Book of Hebrews: Discussing Jewish priesthood & the Temple Refocused to Jesus (he is "our" the High Priest) Temple not earthly but heavenly Barnabas: Food laws -- taken as moral guidelines Circumcision -- not literal, but unimpeded understanding Numerology (gematria) -- the meaning of "318" 5.2 The Battle Within -- Tensions and Varieties Questions asked What is God? How should God be served/worshipped? Gnostics -- creator of the earth not the same as the ultimate God Real God is immaterial, salvation is escape from the material world. Anti-gnostic position (e.g. Justin): created world dominated by sin, but the God who created is the God of Jesus, and it is possible to overcome sin and redeem the world through Jesus Discussion of Authority Pneumatic or charismatic -- chosen by "the spirit" (pneuma), from God (e.g. Paul) Transmitted or institutional -- ordained; man to man system of continuity and certification (e.g. apostolic succession) The treatment of iternant preachers Ignatius -- seen as key figure because of martyrdom Monepiscopate -- one bishop only, not a group; Feels strongly about the local bishop being the head of the local Church Montanism -- (second century) Pneumatic -- Montanus received revelations from God Group of women associated with him -- Priscilla, Maximilla Ininerant (traveling) ministry, as in Didache Eschatological message -- descent of the New Jerusalem Eventually factored out as Church leadership became localized, and imminant eschatology lost its appeal (Montanists' beliefs are similar to Paul's, but Paul's are acceptable as an early voice that is "domesticated," while the Montanists are viewed as extreme, a century after Paul) Community What does it do? Views on Judaism and Greco-Roman world Didache -- specifically written for the purpose of community instruction and construction Justin the martyr -- wrote about the relationship of the Christian world and the Greco-Roman world Should Christians isolate themselves or function openly in their Roman world? After legalization (early 4th century) -- governmental regulation and interaction (permanently joined to the Roman world) --- Class #26 (10 December) missing By Chris Sliwinski //end of 1998 Class Notes//