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GLOSSARY for the Study of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
version 9401 (1994 January), uncopyrightable factual information

Prepared initially by Robert A. Kraft, University of Pennsylvania,
and intended to be used freely in the public domain in this and 
any updated versions (based partly on materials from introductory 
textbooks by Phillip Sigal, Jacob Neusner, Michael Fishbane, 
Sandra Frankiel, R. Dean Peterson, Frederick Denny, Kenneth Cragg, 
F. E. Peters; see also Cyril Glasse/, <t>The Concise Encyclopedia 
of Islam</> [Harper, 1989]). Corrections, additions, and suggestions 
will be greatfully accepted: kraft@ccat.sas.upenn.edu.

coding:
* indicates that the word/term that follows is a glossary entry, 
except that such frequent terms as Jew(ish)/Judaism, Christian(ity), 
and Islam/Muslim are not so identified.
<t>...</> indicates the title of a book or similar work.  
<a>...</> Arabic word, especially used in Islamic studies.
<h>...</> Hebrew (or Aramaic) word, especially used in Judaism.
<g>...</> Greek word, especially used in Christianity.
<l>...</> Latin word, especially used in Christianity.
Diacritics follow the letter to which they pertain.
Note that in the Semitic languages (Heb., Arabic), the apostrophe and 
reversed apostrophe distinguish between two different "a" letters.  

=====

ab (Heb., "father [of]"; see Arabic *abu^). Used in numerous phrases 
and constructions, such as <h>ab bet din</> (lit. "father of/in the 
house of judgment") for one of the presiders in the Jewish *sanhedrin 
(see also *bet/beit). See also *abbot. 

`Abba^sid (Abbasid). The second major Muslim dynasty (following the 
*Umayyads), centered in Iraq (Baghdad, 750-1258 CE), under which 
Islamic civilization achieved maturity. 

Abbot (from Greek and Latin forms based on Hebrew av/*ab, "father"). 
Used especially in Christian *monasticism for the head or supervisor 
of the *monastery. 

`abd (Arabic, "servant [of]"). Often used in Arabic naming 
conventions. See also *ibn, *bint, *abu^. 

abelut (Heb., "mourning"). See *shiva. 

Abraham (adj. Abrahamic). The *patriarch who is acknowledged as a 
special early figure in the histories and folklore of Judaism, 
Christianity and Islam. Presumed to have lived sometime in the period 
2000-1700 BCE; father of Ishmael by Hagar and of Isaac by Sarah. See 
*Bible Genesis 12-25; NT Galatians 3-4; Quran 37.83=113, 2.124-140, 
and frequently. 

absolution (from Latin, to absolve or make to go away). A term used 
especially in *classical Christianity for forgiveness of *sin, as when 
a *priest grants "absolution" to one who is *penitent. 


abu^ (Arabic, "father [of]"; see Heb. *ab). Often used in Arabic 
naming conventions. See also *ibn, *bint, *`abd. 

AD = <l>anno domini</> ("year of the Lord"). See *CE. 

Adam (and Eve) (Hebrew for "human, man"). Name given to the first 
created male (with Eve as female) in the creation story in the Jewish 
scriptures (Genesis 1). Has been interpreted over the centuries both 
*literally (as an actual historical person) and symbolically (as 
generic humankind; see *allegory). 

adha^n (Arabic, "call"). The adhan is the Muslim call to *prayer 
(*salat) by the *muadhdhin from the *mosque 5 times each day. 

adoptionism. An early Christian interpretation of Jesus' relationship 
to the one *God (father) which held that the exemplary human Jesus was 
adopted by *God to be *God's son and to serve in rescuing humankind. 
See also *monarchianism. 

agape (accent on final syllable; a Greek word for "love"). In early 
Christianity, the name given to a community fellowship meal (the 
"love-feast"). In modern Christian *theologizing, sometimes used to 
indicate the highest level of love (divinely oriented). 

aggada(h) (adj. aggadic; Aramaic, "telling, narration"). Jewish term 
for non-*halakic (nonlegal) matter, especially in *Talmud and 
*Midrash; includes folklore, legend, *theology/theosophy, scriptural 
interpretations, biography, etc.; also spelled *haggada(h), not to be 
confused, however, with the *Passover Manual called "the Haggada(h)." 

agnostic (from Greek, "not knowing"), agnosticism. A general term to 
indicate suspension of judgment regarding the existence of *God/deity 
(compare *atheism, *theism) 

AH = <l>anno hegirae</> or year after the *Hijra on 16 July 622 *CE; 
the years AH (or before H) are Muslim lunar years (see *calendar). 

ahl (Arabic, "people [of]"). Used in technical terminology such as 
<a>ahl al-bayt</> ("people of the house"), for the family of 
*Muhammad; <a>ahl al-hadith</> ("people who focus on *hadith") for 
certain *traditionists; <a>ahl al-kalam</> ("people who emphasize 
*kalam") for a type of rationalists; <a>ahl al-kitab</> ("people of 
the Book"), for Jews and Christians (and some Zoroastrians/Sabaeans) 
as tolerated groups under Islamic rule (see *dhimmi). 

Akiba (or better, Aqiba) ben Joseph. Famous Jewish *rabbi (c. 50-135 
CE) in ancient *Palestine; a major legal scholar, who established an 
academy in Bne Brak, and was also a legendary mystic and martyr. He 
was tortured and killed by the Romans in 135 CE. 

`Alawi^s (Arabic "of `Ali"). An Islamic group in Syria (ruling party), 
Lebanon and Turkey with affinities to *Shiite groups such as the 
*Seveners and the *Druzes. See also *gnostic, *syncretism. 

aliy(y)a(h). A term used in modern Judaism especially for migration 
(Heb., "going up") to the land of *Israel (see also *hajj in Islam, 
*pilgrimage). Aliya can also be used for "going up" to the *altar 
(*bema) to read from *Torah. 


`Ali. Son-in-law (husband of *Fatima) and adopted son of *Muhammad, 
and the 4th of the "rightly guided *caliphs," having moved his capital 
from *Medina to Kufa in Iraq. Ali was murdered by a *Kharijite in 661 
CE, and is especially revered by *Shiites. 
  
Alla^h. Arabic word for "*God"; a contraction of <a>al-ila^h</>, "the 
god." See *YHWH. 
                       
allegory (Greek term), adj. allegorical, vb. allegorize. Usually used 
in reference to symbolic interpretation of scriptures or other 
authoritative materials, in Judaism and Islam as well as in 
Christianity. See *midrash, *tafsir. 

altar. Historically, it usually refers to a raised surface (like a 
table) or platform on which *sacrifices were performed. Thus it came 
to designate the central location for *liturgical functions such as 
reading *Torah (Jewish; see *bima) or administering the *eucharist 
(Christian). Compare *minbar. 

am haaretz (pl. <h>ammey haaretz</>; Heb., "people of the land"). A 
term used in Jewish *scriptures for citizens, or some particular class 
of citizens; in *rabbinic literature, for persons or groups that 
dissented from or were uninstructed in *rabbinic *halaka and rigorous 
purity and tithing norms. It sometimes signifies the unlearned, 
sometimes is used condescendingly (boor). It was also used of the 
broad mass of Jewish people of the 1st century CE, who cannot be 
categorized into any of the sub-groups of the time. See also 
*Pharisees. 

amida(h) (Heb., "standing"; pl. <h>amidot</>). The main section of 
*rabbinic Jewish *prayers, recited in a standing posture; also known 
as *tefillah or *shemoneh esreh ("eighteen benedictions"). 

amora (pl. amoraim; Heb., "speaker"). *Rabbinic Jewish teachers of the 
3rd and 4th centuries CE who produced the *gemara for the Babylonian 
and Palestinian *Talmuds. 

amphictyony. Greek term for a religio-political federation with its 
common focus a sanctuary dedicated to *God; an association of 
neighboring states or tribes in ancient Greece that banded together 
for common interest and protection. This model has sometimes been used 
to describe the situation in "the period of the judges" (prior to Saul 
and *David) in Ancient Israel. 
                  
Anabaptists (from Greek, to baptize again, rebaptize). Those 
Christians in the *protestant *Reformation who taught that infant 
*baptism was inadequate, but that baptism was appropriate for those 
adults who profess *faith in Jesus Christ, in an attempt to emulate 
what was considered early Christian practice. Anabaptist groups often 
diverged extensively from other Christians, including other 
*protestants -- and this aspect of the *protestant movement sometimes 
came to be called the "Radical *Reformation." 

anathema (Greek, lit. something [such as a statuette] "set up" as 
dedicated to a *deity; thence off limits for normal use). Something or 
someone considered "anathema" is strongly forbidden, under a curse. 
The formal curse itself can be called an "anathema." 

                                                                  
anchorite (Greek, lit. "without fixed home/location, itinerant"). A 
term applied to early Christian wandering hermits (living in caves, 
etc.), and later in general to *monastics of various sorts (including 
the feminine form "anchoress"). 

angel (Greek, lit. "messenger"). Came to be used specifically for a 
class of extrahuman ("spiritual") beings, both good (usually) and bad 
("demons", "the devil"/*Satan) who become involved in human affairs; 
common to Judaism, Christianity and Islam. A leader or special 
functionary among the angels is sometimes called an "archangel" (e.g. 
Michael, *Gabriel). 

Anglicans, Anglicanism (from Anglo, "English"). Refers to the results 
of the *Reformation movement in England under Henry the 8th, which 
developed largely separate from the *protestant movements on the 
European continent. Also called "Church of England," which gave rise 
to what came to be called the "Episcopal" church in the USA. 

aniconic (Greek, without image) refers to religious perspectives that 
forbid physical representation (pictures, statuary) of *deity. 

ans.a^r (Arabic, "helpers"). Muhammad's Medinan supporters in the 
early establishment of his Arabic power base are called the ansar. 

anthropomorphism. Greek term for the attribution of human behavior or 
characteristics to inanimate objects, animals, natural phenomena, or 
*deity. With regard to *deity, anthropomorphism became a point of 
*theological discussion in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. 

antichrist (Greek, "against [the] Christ"). Term used in Jewish and 
early Christian *eschatology to designate an evil person or force 
opposed to the *Messiah (Christ) in the last days of the earth. 

antinomian (from Greek, "opposing law"). A general term for persons or 
positions that consciously take a stand against the established rules 
and laws. In Christian *tradition, a name given to those who felt that 
salvation by *grace excused them from obeying temporal law(s). 

antisemitism. Literally means opposed to Semites (which would include 
Arabic and other semitic peoples as well), but usually applied 
specifically to opposition to Jews (anti-Judaism). 

apocalypse (adj. apocalyptic). From the Greek, meaning "revelation." A 
genre of literature (attested in Jewish, Christian and Muslim 
*traditions) in which the author claims to have received 
revelation(s), usually about the end-time, and expresses them in vivid 
symbolism. The *intertestamental Jewish and the early Christian 
apocalypses are often *pseudepigraphical. The final book of the 
Christian *NT is sometimes called (in accord with its Greek title) 
"the Apocalypse" (it is also known as "the book of Revelation"). 

Apocrypha (adj. apocryphal). From the Greek, meaning "to hide" or "to 
uncover." It is used in a technical sense to refer to certain Jewish 
books written in the Hellenistic-Roman period that came to be included 
in the Old Greek Jewish scriptures (and thus in the Eastern Christian 
biblical *canon) and in the Latin Vulgate Roman Catholic canon (as 
"deutero-canonical"), but not in the Jewish or Protestant biblical 
canons. See also *Bible, *Septuagint. 


apology. A formal defense of the Christian *faith. Several such 
writings were issued by Christian "apologists" such as Justin the 
Martyr during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, addressed to the Roman 
rulers. 

apostle. Greek for "ambassador, legate"; compare Arabic *rasul. In 
early Christian circles, it was used to refer especially to the 
earliest missionaries sent out to preach the gospel message concerning 
*Jesus/Joshua, among whom Paul included himself (although he had not 
been an associate of Jesus/Joshua); *traditionally, twelve of Jesus' 
close associates come to be called "the 12 Apostles" (also "the 12 
disciples"). 

Apostles' Creed. Name given to one of the earliest known Christian 
*creeds (prior to the "Nicene creed"), used extensively among 
*protestant groups as well as *classical Christians. 

apostolic succession. The idea in *classical Christian circles that 
spiritual and *ecclesiastical *authority was transmitted from Jesus' 
*apostles to their successors (often called *bishops), and so forth in 
a continuous chain, usually formalized by the rite of *ordination. 
*Rabbinic ordination (*semikah) is conceptually similar, tracing its 
succession back to *Moses. In Islam, the concept of the *isnad 
provides a weaker parallel. 
 
aqedah (Heb., "binding" [of Isaac]). The Jewish *biblical account of 
*God's command to Abraham to offer his son Isaac as a *sacrifice 
(Genesis 22). 

Aqiba. See *Akiba. 

Aristotle, Aristotleianism. Aristotle was a famous Greek thinker (died 
in 322 BCE), a student of *Plato, whose interpretation of what 
constitutes reality (metaphysics, ontology) and of how reality is 
organized was widely influential both in ancient times and in the 
"medieval" period of Judaism and Christianity, influenced by the 
"classical" period of Islamic learning. See e.g. *scholasticism. 

Arius, Arianism. Arius was a Christian *presbyter in early 4th century 
Alexandria who argued that the *Christ was the first of *God's 
creations, through whom *God made the world, etc. This position was 
condemned as *heresy by *classical Christianity (see *Athanasius, 
*Nicea), but was widely influential for a long time in that world. 

arka^n (Arabic, "pillars"). See the *pillars of Islam (*din). 

Arminius, Arminianism. Jacob(us) Arminius (1560-1609) was a Dutch 
*Calvinist *protestant Christian teacher and pastor whose 
interpretation of *predestination caused much unrest and discussion. 

`as.abi^yya (Arabic). Muslim term for group feeling, national pride. 

ascetic (from Greek, to hold oneself under control), asceticism. A 
general term for one who follows rigorous bodily and spiritual 
discipline to enhance spiritual experiences and rewards. Often 
connected with *mysticism. 


Ashkenazi(m) (adj. Ashkenazic). The term now used for Jews who derive 
from northern Europe and who generally follow the customs originating 
in medieval German Judaism, in contradistinction to Sephardic Judaism, 
which has its distinctive roots in Spain and the Mediterranean (see 
Sephardim). Originally the designation Ashkenaz referred to a people 
and country bordering on Armenia and the upper Euphrates; in medieval 
times, it came to refer to the Jewish area of settlement in northwest 
Europe (northern France and western Germany). By extension, it now 
refers to Jews of northern and eastern European background (including 
Russia) with their distinctive *liturgical practices or religious and 
social customs. 

assassins (from Arabic <a>h.ashsha^shi^n</>, "hashish users"). A 
general term for persons who justify terminating the lives of their 
opponents on political and/or religious grounds, derived from the name 
given by *crusaders to the Islamic Arabic *Shiite Niza^ri^s in the 
11th-12th centuries. For a similar development in early Judaism, see 
the *Zealots (and Sicarii). 

assimilation. The process of becoming similar to something; used in 
discussion of regligious and cultural developments to describe the 
process in which the characteristic traits of a person or group may be 
lost or modified during adaptation to differing surroundings or 
conditions. See *syncretism. 

assumption (of Mary). A term used technically to indicate the "taking 
up" of a human to heaven (e.g. Enoch or Moses or Elijah in some Jewish 
*traditions), applied specifically in *classical Christianity to the 
*belief that the body of the *Virgin Mary was not allowed to decay on 
earth after death, but was "assumed" into heaven. 

Athanasius was a 4th century Christian leader in Alexandria and Egypt 
who opposed *Arianism and the council of *Nicea and afterwards. 

atheism (from Greek, "no *deity"). A general term for the position 
that there is no *God/deity (compare *agnosticism, *theism). 

Augustine. Famous Christian thinker/author around the year 400 CE, who 
was influenced by *Manicheism and *neo-Platonism, but especially by 
*Paul. He was himself very influential for *Luther. 

authority. That to which submission of some sort is due, whether a 
person (as "the authority of the *rabbi/*bishop/*imam") or an 
institution ("of the *church/*community") or some other appropriate 
focus ("of the *law/*scripture/*tradition"). See also *canon, 
*apostolic succession, *ordination, *See. 

Ayatollah (from Arabic <a>a^yat Alla^h</>, "sign of *God"). A title 
used in Iranian Islamic *Shiism for highly honored members of the 
*ulama. 

Av (or Ab). A month in the Jewish *calendar; the 9th of Av is a day of 
mourning for the destruction of the *Jerusalem *Temple in 586 BCE and 
again in 70 CE. 

Ba'al Shem Tov (BeSHT; lit. "Master of the Good Name"). Founder of mid 
18th century Jewish *Hasidism (proper name was Israel). 


baptism. In earliest Christianity, the rite of ritual immersion in 
water which initiated a person (usually as an "adult") into the 
Christian *church. Very soon, pouring or sprinkling with water came 
into use in some churches, and the practice of baptizing infants. See 
also *initiation, *circumcision. 

bar (bat) mitzvah (Heb., "son (daughter)-of-the-command- ment(s)"). 
The phrase originally referred to a person responsible for performing 
the divine *commandments of Judaism; it now refers to the occasion 
when a boy or girl reaches the age of religious majority and 
responsibility (thirteen years for a boy; twelve years and a day for a 
girl). In Christianity, compare *confirmation. 

baraka(h) (Arabic; see also Heb. *berakah). In Islam, "blessing" or 
"spiritual power" believed to reside in holy places and persons, 
especially the *Sufi master. 

Basmala or Bismillah (Arabic). The name for the sacred Islamic 
invocation "In the name of *God, the merciful, the compassionate" 
<a>bi'smilla^h al-rahma^n al-rah.i^m</> that introduces each Quranic 
*sura (except sura 9) and is uttered frequently by pious Muslims, as 
before meals, before writing something down or making a speech, before 
conjugal relations, before reciting the *Quran, and at other times. 

bat (Heb., "daughter," "daughter of"; Arabic *bint). Used frequently 
in "matronymics" (naming by identity of mother); see also *ben, *bar, 
*ibn. 

bavli. Jewish shorthand term for the Babylonian *Talmud. 

BCE or bce = "before the common era"; an attempt to use a neutral term 
for the period *traditionally labeled "BC" (before Christ) by 
Christians. Thus 586 BCE is identical to 586 BC. 
 
Bakr. Abu^ Bakr was a father-in-law of *Muhammad and became the first 
*caliph, under whom the collection of *Quranic materials was 
expedited. 

belief (see also *creed, *doctrine, *dogma, *faith, *emuna, *iman). A 
term with multiple applications, from general assent or fidelity to a 
religious idea or position (constituting someone as a "believer"), to 
specific reference to well defined religious conceptual objects 
(beliefs). In Islam, along with the general ideal of pious adherence 
(*iman), five or six central beliefs are *traditionally listed: 
*monotheism, *revelatory *scriptures, *angels, *prophets, 
*eschatology, and (not always included in the list) *predestination. 
For *classical Judaism, see the *thirteen principles. Christianity has 
tended to be more preoccupied with defining beliefs (see *orthodox) 
than have *classical Judaism or Islam (see *orthopraxy). 

ben (Heb., "son," "son of"; Aramaic *bar; Arabic *ibn). Used 
frequently in "patronymics" (naming by identity of father); *Rabbi 
Akiba ben Joseph means Akiba son of Joseph. See also *bat, *bint. 

berak(h)ah (Heb., "blessing"; Arabic *baraka). In Judaism, an offering 
of thankfulness that praises *God for a benefit conferred or a great 
event experienced (pl. <h>berakot</>). See also *shemonah esre. 


berit or brit (Heb., "*covenant"). Used in Judaism especially for the 
special relationship believed to exist between *God and the Jewish 
people. 

bet/beit midrash (Heb.; Arabic <a>bayt</>); see also *midrash, 
*synagogue. In Judaism, a place (<h>beit</> = "house") of study, 
discussion, and *prayer; in ancient times a school of higher learning 
(see, for example, "house of *Hillel"). Similarly, <h>bet am</> 
("house of people"), <h>bet kneset</> ("house of assembly") and <h>bet 
tefilla</> ("house of *prayer") are designations for 
locations/functions that came to be included in the general term  
*synagogue; <h>bet din</> ("house of judgment") refers to a *halakic 
law court (see also *sanhedrin). 

Bible (adj. biblical; from the Greek <g>biblos</> meaning "book"). 
Designation normally used for Jewish scriptures (*TaNaK = *Protestant 
Christian "*Old Testament"; plus the *Apocrypha in *classical 
Christianity) or Christian scriptures ("OT" plus the Christian "*New 
Testament"). See also *canon, *Quran, *Septuagint, *Vulgate. 

bid`a (Arabic, "innovation"). The term bida came to be used in Islam 
for "*heresy." 

bimah (from Greek <g>beema</>, "*altar"). Location in a *synagogue 
from which worship (see *liturgy) is led. See also *minbar. 

bint (Arabic, "daughter," "daughter of"; Hebrew *bat). Used frequently 
in "matronymics" (naming by identity of mother); see also *ben, *bar, 
*ibn. 

birkat haminim (Heb., "(bene)diction concerning *heretics"). A *prayer 
that invoked divine wrath upon Christian Jews and other *heterodox 
Jewish groups. 12th section of the *shemoneh esre. 

bishop (see also *episkopos). The rank in the *clergy of Roman 
*Catholic and Eastern *Orthodox *churches above a *priest, with 
*authority to ordain priests as well as perform other *sacraments. In 
the early church, an elected head of the church for an entire city; 
now, an appointed head of a diocese (or "*See"). (A few other 
churches, such as the Methodist and Mormon, also have the office of 
bishop.) 

Bismillah. See *Basmala. 

blasphemy (Greek, "speak ill, defame"). A general term for speaking 
against the *deity or things associated with the *deity. See 
*sacrilege, *shirk. 

born again. In modern Christianity, having experienced a true 
conversion and/or total dedication to Christ, usually in an in-tense 
emotional experience. Such language is usually used by "*evangelical" 
Christians. 

brit (or berit) milah (Heb., "*covenant of *circumcision"). 

bull. In Roman *Catholic Christian contexts, refers to a formal 
proclamation from the *pope or other high religious authorities. 


Byzantium (adj., byzantine) is the old Greek name for what in 330 CE 
became the city of *Constantinople (now *Istanbul), the "new Rome" and 
capital city of the eastern Roman Empire from the early 4th century 
(see *Constantine) through the mid 15th (see *Ottomans). This 
predominantly Greek speaking half of the Roman Empire comes to be 
called the "Byzantine" Empire by western historians. It was highly 
structured and bureaucratic in its political organization, thus giving 
rise to the modern adjective "byzantine," with the sense of 
excessively complex and rigid. 

calendar. In general, Christianity operates on a "solar" calendar 
based on the relationship between the sun and the earth (365.25 days 
per year). The main Christian observances are *Easter, *Pentacost, and 
*Christmas. The Islamic calendar is "lunar," based on the relationship 
of earth and moon (354 days in a year). Thus every 100 solar years are 
equal to about 103 lunar years. Muslim calendric observances include 
*fasting during the month of *Ramadan, followed by the feast of *fast 
breaking (*id al-fitr), and the time for *pilgrimage to Mecca (*hajj) 
and associated practices such as the Feast of *Sacrifice. Judaism 
follows a lunar calandar adjusted every three years or so to the solar 
cycle (by adding a second 12th month) -- thus "lunisolar." The oldest 
Jewish annual observances are *Passover/pesah, *Shevuot, *Yom Kippur 
and *Sukkot; other ancient celebrations include *Rosh ha-shana, 
*Simhat Torah, *Hannukah and *Purim. See also *BCE, *CE, *AH. 

caliph (Arabic <a>khila^fah</>, "successor, deputy, vicegerent"). In 
the *Quran it refers to people who submit in voluntary service to *God 
and are thus empowered to carry on a free and active life as *God's 
vice-gerents on earth; in the early histoty of Islam, caliph is the 
title for the military/political leader of the *umma functioning as 
Muhammad's "successor" in all but the prophetic role. The "four 
rightly guided caliphs" are Abu *Bakr, *`Umar, *`Uthman, and *`Ali. 

calligraphy (Greek, "beautiful writing"). In general, artistic 
attention to the written formation of letters and words. More 
specifically, the practice developed especially in Muslim circles of 
creating attractive and often meaningful patterns and forms through 
the artistic manipulation of letters (usually passages from the 
*Quran). Since *classical Islam discouraged realistic (pictoral) art 
in religious contexts, this sort of calligraphy may have been 
developed in part as a decorative substitute. 

Calvin, Calvinist, Calvinism. John Calvin (1509-1564) was an 
influential French *protestant thinker and churchman who spent most of 
his adult life leading the Swiss *Reformation in Geneva. His famous 
work called "Institutes of the Christian *Religion" remains 
influential among *conservative *Presbyterian and reated groups. 

canon, canonical scripture. The books of the *Bible recognized as 
authoritative and divinely revealed. See also *Apocrypha. 

cantor (from Latin, one who sings). In Judaism, a reciter and 
chanter/singer of *liturgical materials in the *synagogue; also used 
similarly in Christian contexts (choir leader, etc.). Compare *hazzan 
(Islam). 


cardinal. An official in the Roman *Catholic Christian *church next 
below the *pope, appointed by the pope as a member of the "college" of 
cardinals which was formed in the middle ages to assist the pope and 
elect new popes. 

catechism. In early Christian usage, oral instruction (Greek, 
catechesis) in doctrine, especially prior to *baptism; can mean any 
official summary of doctrine used to teach newcomers to the *faith. 

catechumen. One receiving instruction in basic doctrines (*catechism) 
before *baptism or, if already baptized as an infant, before 
*confirmation or first *communion. 

catholic, catholicism (from Greek meaning "universal, worldwide"). A 
selfdesignation used in early Christianity to suggest universality 
over against factionalism (see *orthodoxy, *heresy); thence it became 
a technical name for the western, Roman Catholic church. 

CE or ce = "common era"; an attempt to use a neutral term for the 
period *traditionally labeled "AD" (<l>anno domini</> or "year of the 
Lord") by Christians. Thus 1992 CE is identical to AD 1992. 

celibacy. The practice of refraining from sexual relationships in the 
interest of religious purity, known in Judaism among the *Essenes and 
developed extensively in Christianity (see *monk, *priest). 
 
chiliastic. From the Greek for "1000." Pertaining to the (Christian) 
*belief that Christ will reign for a thousand years in the end-times; 
also called *millenarian (from the Latin). 

Christ. Greek translation of <h>meshiah</> (see *messiah, below). 
Applied to *Jesus/Joshua of Nazareth by his followers as a title, but 
soon came to be treated as a sort of second name. 


Christian(ity). One who self-identifies or is identified as a follower 
of *Jesus/Joshua the *Christ (thus an adherent of the broadly defined 
abstract classification "Christianity"). 

Christendom. The totality of the Christian world (with focus on 
extent, whereas "Christianity" emphasizes outlook/perspective). 

Christmas (*mass for birth of *Christ). A relatively late developing 
annual Christian festival (see *calendar), now held on the fixed date 
of 25 December in most *churches. In earlier times (by the 4th 
century), the celebration of Jesus' birth tended to be in the spring, 
around the time of *Easter. Its observation in proximity to the winter 
solstice (shortest day of the year) encouraged the inclusion and 
development of many aspects that were not present or important in this 
celebration. 

christology (from Greek). Study of the *christ concept/title in its 
various associations and applications (e.g. as royal or priestly or 
prophetic figure, as *eschatological agent, etc.). 

chuppah. See huppah.

church (Greek <g>ekklesia</>, "summoned group"; see "*ecclesiastical," 
etc.). The designation *traditionally used for a specifically 
Christian assembly or body of people, and thus also the building or 
location in which the assembled people meet, and by extension also the 
specific organized sub-group within Christianity (e.g. *Catholic, 
*Protestant, Methodist, etc.). Similar to *synagogue and *kahal in 
Judaism. See also *mosque. 
 
circumcision (from Latin, to cut around). The minor surgical removal 
of the skin covering the tip of the penis. In Judaism, it is ritually 
performed when a boy is eight days old in a ceremony called <h>brit 
milah</>, which indicates that the ritual establishes a *covenant 
between *God and the individual. In Islam, it is performed at any time 
up to the age of puberty, depending on the cultural *tradition (e.g. 
birth, 7 years, puberty, etc.). See also *initiation, *baptism. 

classical Judaism, Christianity, Islam. The forms of the *religions 
that have survived as *traditional throughout the centuries. See 
*rabbinic, *orthodox, *sunni. See also *conservative. 

clergy. In Christian contexts, the body of ordained men (and in some 
churches women) in a *church, permitted to perform the *priestly 
and/or pastoral duties, as distinct from the *laity to whom they 
minister. In Judaism, the rabbinate (see *rabbi). Islam has no formal 
clergy in this sense. 

cohen. See *kohen. *Priest (Judaism). 

commandments (Heb., mitzvot; sing., mitzvah). According to *rabbinic 
Jewish *tradition, there are 613 religious commandments referred to in 
the Torah (and elaborated upon by the *rabbinic *sages). Of these, 248 
are positive commandments and 365 are negative. The numbers 
respectively symbolize the fact that divine service must be expressed 
through all one's bodily parts during all the days of the year. In 
general, a <h>mitzvah</> refers to any act of religious duty or 
obligation; more colloquially, a <h>mitzvah</> refers to a "good 
deed." 


communion; also, "holy communion." A term used especially in Christian 
*Protestant circles for the *sacrament of receiving bread and wine as 
the body and blood of Christ (or as symbols thereof), also known as 
the Lord's supper or the *eucharist. 

confirmation (from Latin, "to firm up, establish"). A Christian rite 
admitting a *baptized person into full *church membership, originally 
by anointing with oil. In Judaism, compare *bar (bat) mitzvah. 

Congregationalism. One of the types of *protestant Christian 
*denominations, in which *church government is conducted primarily by 
the membership (the "congregation"), rather than by some leadership 
level. Early American Puritan Christianity was congregationalist. 

consecrate. To bless formally, especially in the context of *classical 
Christian *sacraments. 

conservative. A term often used in religious discussions (frequently 
in express or implied contrast to "*liberal" or "*modernist") to 
indicate a relatively *traditional (even *classical) stance towards 
the matters considered centrally important. See also *fundamentalist. 

Conservative Judaism. A modern development in Judaism, reacting to 
early Jewish *Reform movements in an attempt to retain clearer links 
to *classical Jewish law while at the same time adapting it to modern 
situations. Its scholarly center in the US is the Jewish Theological 
Seminary in New York. 

Constantine. Co-emperor and then (from 324) sole emperor of the Roman 
Empire in the early 4th century CE, under whom the city of 
*Constantinople (formerly *Byzantium) was established (in 330) as the 
"new Rome" and capital of the Empire. He publicly embraced 
Christianity near the beginning of his rule, granted Christians 
official toleration for the first time, and was instrumental in 
convening the council of *Nicea in 325 and in developing Constantipole 
as a "Christian" city. Thus he was very important for the 
establishment of an "officially" sanctioned  Christian *orthodoxy as 
well as the growth in Christian political influence and power. 

Constantinople (Greek, "Constantine's city"; see also *Byzantium). The 
city on the Bosphorus strait at the southwestern tip of the Black Sea 
that became *Constantine's "new Rome" in 330 CE. The modern name of 
the site, in Islamic Turkey, is *Istanbul. 

consubstantiation. In *Lutheran Christianity, the *belief that in the 
*eucharist, *Jesus *Christ is present mystically, along with the 
elements of wine and bread. 

conversion, convert (from Latin, "to turn around"). In general 
religious usage, the act of changing alliegance from one group to 
another. In (especially *evangelical) Christian usage, it can also 
mean to accept a particular interpretation of the Christian *faith 
(see also *born again). 

conviction. In modern Christianity (especially of the "*evangelical" 
sorts), the state in which one recognizes one's sinfulness and guilt 
before *God, preliminary to experiencing *conversion. 


covenant. A pact between two parties. The major covenants in Jewish 
scriptures are *God's covenant with Abraham (Genesis 15), and the 
Sinai/Moses covenant (Exodus 19-24) between *God and Israel. In 
Judaism, the covenant (Hebrew, <h>brit</>) is a major *theological 
concept referring to the eternal bond between *God and the people of 
Israel grounded in *God's gracious and steadfast concern (Hebrew, 
<h>h.esed</>) that calls for the nation's obedience to the divine 
commandments (mitzvot) and instruction (torah). For Christianity (e.g. 
Paul), *God has made a "new covenant" (rendered as "new testament" in 
older English) with the followers of *Jesus/Joshua in the last times, 
superseding the "old covenant" (thus, "old testament") with Moses at 
Sinai (see Jeremiah 31.31-34). 

creed(s). A general term (from Latin) for "*belief" declarations or 
summaries such as the Christian *apostles' or *Nicene creeds, or in 
Judaism the *shema affirmation, or in Islam the *shahada (*kalima). 

crucifix, crucifixion (from the Latin, to affix to a cross). In 
Christian symbolism, the cross-form (crucifix, with or without *Jesus 
attached) is an expression of the death of *Jesus/Joshua on the cross 
(crucifixion) and its *theological significance. 

crusades. A series of military operations by Christians from western 
Europe in the late 11th through the late 13th centuries (1096-1270) 
aimed at "freeing" the "holy land" of *Jerusalem and *Palestine from 
its Muslim rulers (considered "infidels" by the crusaders). The 
results were varied and complex. 

cult (sometimes "cultus," from Latin). A general term for formal 
aspects and interrelationships of religious observance, often as 
focused on a particular phenomenon (e.g. the "*temple cult," the "cult 
of *saints"). 

Da^r al-Isla^m (Arabic, "the household of submission/Islam"). The 
territories governed by Muslims under the *sharia constitute Dar al-
Islam; the term's opposite is <a>Da^r al-H.arb</>, "The Household of 
Warfare," those lands lacking the security and guidance of *God's law. 

David. Jewish folkhero around 1000 BCE, to whom many *biblical psalms 
are attributed and who is credited with politically and militarily 
uniting the ancient *Israelite *amphictyony into a centralized kingdom 
with *Jerusalem as its capital. David is said to have planned for the 
*Temple which his son and successor Solomon built. 

da`wa (Arabic). The  "calling" of people to the *religion of Islam; 
thus, "missions." 

deacon (from Greek, "to serve"). The lowest ordained office in the 
Roman *Catholic *church (together with subdeacon), originally in 
charge of gathering and distributing the *eucharistic offerings, later 
a stage in seminary training. In modern *Protestant churches, a deacon 
may be an official elected to a certain responsibility in worship or 
administration. 

Dead Sea Scrolls. See *Qumran. 


decalogue. A Greek term referring to the ten commandments (Heb. 
<h>'aseret hadibrot</>) received by *Moses on Mount Sinai according to 
Jewish *scriptures (Exodus 2O.1-17; Deuteronomy 5.1-21). 

deify (see *deity). To make something or someone *God-like.

deity (from Latin deus = *God). See *God.

demiurge (from Greek, "maker" [literally, "one who works in the 
context of the community/people"]). A philosophical concept found in 
*Platonism to designate the divine agency by which the physical world 
came into existence. The idea was taken over in Christian *gnosticism 
to distinguish the creator of the physical world (often seen as evil) 
from the superior/good *God who is completely unconnected with matter. 

denomination. Subdivision within a religious movement, especially with 
reference to *mainstream *Protestant Christianity where Baptists, 
Methodists, Presbyterians, etc. are called "denominations." Usually 
distinguished from "sects" or "cults" which by implication have less 
"official" status. 

dhikr (Arabic). "Remembering" or "mentioning" *God by means of his 
names in response to his words in the *Quran is the central practice 
of *Sufi meditation (see also *prayer). 

dhimmi^ (Arabic, "protected"). Refers to one of the "people of the 
Book" (see *ahl) who receives protective treatment in exchange for 
certain obligations such as paying a head tax (*<a>jizya</>). 

diaspora. Greek "scattering." Often used to refer to the Jewish 
communities living among the *gentiles outside the "holy land" of 
Canaan/Israel/*Palestine.  

dietary laws. For Judaism, see *kosher. Islam also has certain 
prohibitions regarding foods. 

di^n (Arabic, "*religion"). In Islam, din is a general term for 
religion, but usually for the true religion of Islam (compare *millah) 
or for religious practice in particular. See *pillars of Islam. In 
other contexts, din can also mean divine *judgment (e.g. <a>*yawm al-
din</>); compare in Judaism the <h>bet din</> (see under *bet/beit). 

dispensationalism. A modern *conservative *protestant position that 
divides history into various periods of divine activity 
(dispensations), each of which is identified by a specific 
characterization. 

doctrine. A general term for a formally defined *belief (e.g. the 
doctrine of the resurrection in Christianity), or for the total system 
of *beliefs ("Christian doctrine"). 

dogma. In Christianity, an authoritative statement of *belief; 
official *doctrine; can also be used as a general term. 

Druzes. An Islamic group in Israel, Syria and Lebanon, with affinities 
to the *sevener *Shiites. See also *Alawi, *gnostic. 

du`a^' (Arabic, lit. "calling"). Individual, private *prayer in Islam. 
See also *salat, *dhikr. 


dualist(ic). Refers to ideas or systems that emphasize significant 
polarities or oppositions, as for example with regard to reality (e.g. 
immaterial/spiritual versus material/physical, *God vs *Satan), to 
human nature (body vs soul), and to *ethics (good vs evil). 

early Judaism, also sometimes called "formative," "proto-," "middle," 
and even "late" Judaism. Refers to Judaism in the *intertestamental 
period (and slightly later) as a development from the *religion of 
ancient *Israel, but prior to the emergence of its *classical, 
*rabbinic form in the early centuries CE. 

Easter. The most ancient Christian annual special day, commemorating 
the (death and) resurrection of *Jesus/Joshua in the spring, at the 
time of Jewish *Passover/Pesach (thus not a fixed day on the solar 
*calendar). See also *lent. 

Ebionites, Ebionism. A Judeo-Christian *sect (or category) in the 2nd-
4th centuries CE; accepted much of *Mosaic *Torah (*circumcision, 
*sabbath, etc.) but rejected *sacrifices; accepted *Jesus/Joshua as 
*messiah but not his divinity; some Ebionites opposed the *doctrines 
of Paul. 

ecclesiastical (Greek <g>ekklesia</>, "summoned group"). Pertaining to 
the Christian *church and things associated with its governance and 
activities. 

eclectic (from Greek, "selected"). A general term used to refer to an 
approach that selects particular components from different sources to 
create a new configuration. See also *syncretism. 

ecumenical (from Greek for "household," thus considering the world as 
a household). A Christian initiative to promote worldwide cooperation 
(with the ideal of unity) within that *religion and with other *faiths 
as well. The Christian Ecumenical Councils of the 4th (see *Nicea) 
through the 7th centuries were representative bodies that helped 
formulate *classical Christian *beliefs. 

Eden. The name of paradise in the Jewish *biblical account in Genesis 
1, where *Adam and Eve were created. 

ein sof (Heb., "without limit"). In Jewish *kabbalism, a designation 
for the divine -- "the unlimited one." 

elder. Generally, a term of respect often used to distinguish a 
"senior" person from someone younger with the same name. As a 
Christian church office, see *presbyter. 

elect. In early Judaism and Christianity, refers to those considered 
to be chosen by *God for a specific purpose; in some Christian 
*predestinarian schemes (e.g. *Calvinistic), "the elect" are those 
whom *God has chosen (in advance) to have eternal life. 

election. A term used *theologically in Judaism to indicate *God's 
choice of Israel to receive the covenant -- a choice not based on the 
superiority or previous accomplishments of the people, but on *God's 
graciousness (see covenant). In Christianity, the concept of election 
was applied to the "new Israel" of *Jesus' followers in the last 
times. 


elevation of the host. The *classical Christian priestly practice of 
raising the *eucharistic bread above the head so that the laypeople 
(*laity) behind the *priest can see it, at the moment of 
*transubstantiation. 

Elohim, El. Hebrew general term for *deity. See also *YHWH. 

emuna(h) (Heb., "faith"; see Arabic <a>*iman</>). See *faith.

episkopos/episcopos (adj. episcopal; from Greek "overseer"). Became a 
technical term for the chief *clergyman in charge of a city or 
district in *classical Christian church organization. Thence the 
modern *denominational name "Episcopal" to signify that *authority is 
viewed as the responsibility of the *bishops, not the general 
membership (*laity) or a single *pope figure. 

eretz Yisrael/Israel (Heb., "land of Israel"). In Jewish thought, the 
special term for the *Palestinian area believed to have been promised 
to the Jewish people by *God in the ancient *covenant. 

eschatology (adj. eschatological; from Greek <g>eschaton</>, "last" or 
"the end-time"). Refers in general to what is expected to take place 
in the "last times" (from the inquirer's perspective); thus the study 
of the ultimate destiny or purpose of humankind and the world, how and 
when the end will occur, what the end or last period of history or 
existence will be like. See also *chiliastic/millenarian, 
*apocalypse/apocalyptic, *judgment, *messiah, *mahdi, *satan. 

essence (Latin, from the verb "to be"). A philosophical term used to 
identify that without which something would not be what it is (its 
"sine qua non"). For *Aristotle, the distinction between the essence 
of a thing and its "accidents" (incidental qualities) was basic; see 
*transubstantiation, for example. 

Essenes. The name of a Jewish sub-group in the 1st century CE 
according to *Josephus, *Philo and other sources. See also *Qumran. 

ethics (Greek, "customs"; see Latin mores [*morals]). A general 
designation for value systems governing human activities considered to 
be "right" or "wrong," usually with reference to some "higher" 
*authority (as in "you have no ethics" or "what are the ethics of this 
situation?"); also refers to the study of such systems. 

etiology (also aetiology), from the Greek for "cause or origin." A 
term used to describe or label stories that claim to explain the 
reason for something being (or being called) what it is. For example, 
in the old Jewish creation story (Genesis 2.23), woman (<h>ishshah</>) 
is given that name because she has been "taken out of (the side or rib 
of) man" (<h>ish</>). 

etrog. A citron; "the fruit of goodly trees" (Leviticus 23.40) carried 
in procession in the *synagogue with the lulab during the festival of 
*Sukkot (Feast of Tabernacles). 


eucharist (from Greek for "*prayer of thanks"). The Christian 
*sacrament of receiving bread (usually *unleavened) and wine as the 
body and blood of Christ (or as symbols thereof). This term is more 
often used for the sacrament in the Roman *Catholic (see also *mass) 
and Eastern *Orthodox *churches, while *communion or "Lord's supper" 
is more common in the *Protestant *traditions. 

evangelical, evangelizing, evangelistic (from Greek for "*gospel," 
thus, gospel-centered). Those Christian *churches or movements that 
emphasize preaching that leads to repentance and conversion; in modern 
Christianity, evangelical *beliefs usually include salvation by *faith 
based on a personal conversion experience and emphasis on the 
*authority of the *canonical *scriptures (see also *fundamentalism). 

ex cathedra (Latin, "from the chair/throne"). An important term in 
Roman *Catholic Christianity to designate the circumstance in which 
the pronouncement of the *pope is considered infallible in matters of 
*faith and/or *morals -- when he speaks "ex cathedra" (officially). 

excommunication. The act of religious authorities to deprive a person 
of membership or participation in the group; in Christianity, 
specifically exclusion from holy *communion. 

exilarch (Aramaic <h>resh *galuta</>, "head of the exile"). A term 
used in early *rabbinic Judaism for the head of the Jewish community 
in exile in Babylonia. The exilarch was depicted as an imperial 
dignitary, a member of the council of state, living in semi-royal 
fashion, who appointed communal officers and judges and was a 
descendant of the house of David. 

exile. See galut. 

existentialism. A modern philosophical position that has influenced 
Jewish and Christian thought significantly, with emphasis on the idea 
that meaningfulness must be created by people, to whom only existence 
is given. 

Exodus (from Greek "to exit or go out"). Refers to the event of the 
Israelites leaving Egypt (see also *Passover) and to the biblical book 
(see *Pentateuch) that tells of that event. 

Ezra. Name of a person in the *Hebrew *Bible with whom the 
reestablishment of Judaism in *Jerusalem in the 5th century BCE is 
associated. The events are recorded in a *biblical book known by his 
name, and he is also associated with *apocryphal books and 
*traditions. 

faith. A general term for religious *belief used both of an attitude 
(to have faith) and of a collection of *doctrines (the faith). See 
also *emuna, *iman. 

faqi^r (Arabic, "poor person"). In Islamic *Sufism, a faqir is a 
*mendicant who pursues spiritual as well as economic poverty. 

fast, fasting. A general term for the religious rite or practice of 
going without food at certain times or for certain periods. See 
*asceticism, *Ramadan, *sawm, *Yom Kippur. 


Fa^tih.a(h) (Arabic, "opening"). Al-Fatiha(h) is the title of the 
initial *sura of the *Quran, which serves Islam as a *prayer used in 
various contexts. Compare *Lord's Prayer in Christianity, *kaddish in 
Judaism. 

Fa^tima. A daughter of *Muhammad and his first wife, *Khadija, and 
herself wife of *`Ali (see also "rightly guided *caliphs"). Her name 
was used by the impressive *Shiite "Fatimid" dynasty in Egypt in the 
10th and 11th centuries. 

fatwa (Arabic). In Islamic law, an advice rendered by an appropriate 
*authority (see *mufti). See also *responsa in Judaism. 

fiqh (Arabic). "Understanding" in matters of religious law (*sharia); 
Islamic jurisprudence as developed by the several schools of law 
(Hanbalite, Shafiite, Hanafite, Malikite). See also *ijma, *qiyas, 
*ray. 

fitnah (Arabic, "trial, testing"). A term used of early antagonism to 
individual Muslims, and later of threats to the health of the state 
(*umma) as well. 

fit.ra (Arabic). In Islam, fitra is the original constitution or 
nature of humans as created by *God, and is considered healthy. 

Friars. From the Latin word for brothers, members of one of the 
*mendicant (begging) *orders as distinct from the cloistered *monks. 

fundamentalism. A term originally applied to *conservative, *Bible-
centered *Protestant Christians (many of whom now prefer to call 
themselves "*evangelicals"), but more recently extended to apply to 
the religiously authoritarian of all sorts (including *classical 
Christians, Jews, and Muslims) who interpret their *scriptures 
literally and in general favor a strict adherence to certain 
*traditional *doctrines and practices. 

Gabriel. An *angel or archangel from Jewish *tradition who is closely 
associated with the *virgin birth in Christianity, and with the 
*revelation of the *Quran in Islam. 

galut (Heb., "exile"). The term refers to the various expulsions of 
Jews from the ancestral homeland. Over time, it came to express the 
broader notion of Jewish homelessness and state of being aliens. Thus, 
colloquially, "to be in <h>galut</>" means to live in the diaspora and 
also to be in a state of physical and even spiritual alienation. 

Gaon (pl. Geonim,; adj. geonic; Heb., "eminence, excellence"). A title 
given to the Jewish head of the Babylonian academy and then to 
distinguished *talmudic scholars in the 6th to 12th centuries. 

Geiger, Abraham (1810-1874). Early Jewish *reform advocate in Germany, 
noted for his scholarship, his modern *prayer book, and his advocacy 
for Judaism as a "world *religion." 

gemara (Heb., "completion"). Popularly applied to the Jewish *Talmud 
as a whole, to discussions by *rabbinic teachers on *Mishnah, and to 
decisions reached in these discussions. In a more restricted sense, 
the work of the generations of the *amoraim in "completing" *Mishnah 
to produce the *Talmuds. 


gematria. An interpretative device in *rabbinic Judaism which focuses 
on the numerical value of each word. 

genizah (Heb., "hiding"). A hiding place or storeroom, usually 
connected with a Jewish *synagogue, for worn-out holy books. The most 
famous is the Cairo Genizah, which contained books and documents that 
provide source material for Jewish communities living under Islamic 
rule from about the 9th through the 12th centuries. It was discovered 
at the end of the 19th century. 

gentile(s) (Latin for people, nation). In pre-Christian times, used to 
refer to non-Jewish peoples; thereafter, for non-Jewish and non-
Christian (roughly synonymous with "*pagan"). See also *kafir. 
 
geonic. See *Gaon. 

gittin (Heb.; sing. <h>get</>). Jewish practice related to 
divorce. A <h>get</> is a Jewish divorce. 

gnostic, Gnosticism. Derived from the Greek <g>gnosis</>, meaning 
"knowledge." Refers to various systems of *belief characterized by a 
dualistic view of reality -- the *God who created the material, 
phenomenal world (see *demiurge), is different from (often 
antithetical to) the ultimate (hidden) *God of pure spirit. Possession 
of secret gnosis frees a person from the evil material world and gives 
access to the spiritual world. Gnostic thought had a great impact on 
the eastern Mediterranean world in the 2nd to 4th century CE, often in 
a Christian form. See also *mystic, and *hikma in Islam. 

God. A general designation for the *deity (Hebrew *Elohim, *Yhwh; 
Greek Theos; Arabic *Allah). 

gospel (from the German for "good news" = Greek <g>euaggelion</>; see 
*evangelical). A term used in *early Christianity for the message 
about *Jesus, and fairly soon (by extension) for writings that 
contained information about Jesus ("gospel according to Mark," etc., 
became "gospel of Mark"); the *NT contains 4 "gospels" (Matthew, Mark, 
Luke, John), and there are other noncanonical gospels as well. In the 
Muslim *Quran, "gospel" is the main term for Christian *scripture. 

grace. In Christian thought, unmerited divine assistance on one's 
spiritual path; often conceived as a special blessing received in an 
intense experience, but also may include a sense of special direction 
in one's life. 

great schism. The "split" between the western Latin (Roman Catholic) 
Christian *church and the eastern *Orthodox churches, culminating in 
1053 CE when mutual excommunications were hurled. 

habdalah (Heb., "separation"). The Jewish ceremony using wine, spices, 
and candles at the conclusion of the Sabbath. Smelling the spices 
signifies the hope for a fragrant week; the light signifies the hope 
for a week of brightness and joy. 

Hadassah. Jewish women's *zionist organization in the US. 


h.adi^th (Arabic, "report, account"). A *tradition about Muhammad -- 
what he said or did on a particular occasion; the hadiths were 
collected and they came to be a record of the Prophet's *Sunna, which 
is second only to the *Quran in *authority for Muslims. See also 
*isnad. 

haftara(h)/haftorah (Heb.). In Jewish *liturgy, designates a specific 
section of the *biblical *prophets read in *synagogue services 
immediately after the corresponding *Torah (*Pentateuch) section 
called the *parasha(h). 

haggada(h) (Heb., "narration"; see also Aramaic *aggada[h]). In a 
general sense, in classical Jewish literature and discussion, what is 
not *halaka (legal subject matter) is (h)aggada (pl. <h>haggadot</>). 
Technically, "the Haggada(h)" is a *liturgical manual used in the 
Jewish *Passover *Seder. 

H.ajj (Arabic). Hajj denotes the Muslim *pilgrimage to *Mecca in the 
appointed sacred (12th) month (see *calendar) and is one of the five 
*pillars of Islam (*din). One who performs hajj is called a *muhajirun 
(Arabic). See also *id, *ihram, *umra, *aliya, *liturgy. 

hakam (pl. <h>hakamim</> or <h>hakmim</>; Heb., "the wise"). A Jewish 
title given to pre-70 CE *proto-rabbinic sages/scholars and post-70 CE 
*rabbinic scholars. 

halaka(h)/halakha (adj. halakic). Any normative Jewish law, custom, 
practice, or rite -- or the entire complex. Halaka is law established 
or custom ratified by authoritative *rabbinic jurists and teachers. 
Colloquially, if something is deemed halakic, it is considered proper 
and normative behavior. 
                            
halitzah. A ceremony related to the Jewish Levirate law of marriage, 
which frees the widow to marry someone other than her husband's 
brother. In this ceremony the widow removes a shoe from her brother-
in-law's foot, which is symbolic of removing his possessive right over 
her. See also *levirate marriage. 

h.ani^f (Arabic; pl. <a>h.unafa^'</>). In Islamic *tradition, a hanif 
is a pre-Islamic (Arabian) monotheist whose *beliefs are thought to 
have descended from the time of the hanif *Abraham, independently of 
Judaism, Christianity or Quranic Islam. 

Hanukka(h) (Heb., "dedication") A Jewish festival ("of lights") that 
commemorates the rededication of the Jerusalem *temple to more 
*traditional modes of Jewish worship by Judah the Maccabee around 164 
BCE. See also *calendar. 

hasidim, hasidism (Heb., "pious ones"). The term may refer to Jews in 
various periods: (1) a group that resisted the policies of Antiochus 
Epiphanes in the 2nd century BCE at the start of the Maccabean revolt; 
(2) *pietists in the 13th century; (3) followers of the movement of 
Hasidism founded in the first half of the 18th century by Israel *Baal 
Shem Tov. 

haskalah (Heb.). Jewish rationalistic "enlightenment" in eighteenth- 
and nineteenth-century Europe. See *maskilim, *Mendelson, *reform. 


Hasmoneans. Descendants of Hashmon, a Jewish family that included the 
Maccabees and the high *priests and kings who ruled Judea from 142 to 
63 BCE. 

Hassan or Hasan. In Islamic history, a son of *Ali (and brother of 
*Husayn) who abdicated his claims to be *calif in favor of the first 
*Umayyad ruler Muawiyah; usually numbered as second *Imam by the 
*Shiites. 
        
hazzan. See *cantor. 

heaven. A term used variously to designate such locations as the abode 
of *deity, or the place where those favored by *God will ultimately 
arrive, or an area of (spiritual) activity above the material earth, 
or the place where spiritual/ideal realities abide. See also 
*paradise. 

Hebrew (from Heb. to pass over, cross over). An old name given to the 
people of *Israel, and also to their language. 

hegira(h) (Arabic; see *hijra). 

hell (also hades [Greek]). Place of punishment for the departed dead 
who do not attain to *heaven, especially in Christian *eschatology. 
See also *sheol, *Satan. 

hellenism (adj. hellenistic; Greek word for "Greekish"). The 
civilization that spread from Greece through much of the ancient world 
from 333 (Alexendar the Great) to 63 (dominance of Rome) BCE. As a 
result, many elements of Greek culture (names, language, philosophy, 
athletics, architecture, etc.) penetrated the Near East. 

heresy (from Greek for "sub-group, sect"). See *minim, *heterodox, 
*bid`a; also *orthodoxy. 

heretic, heretical. See *heterodox, *orthodox, *schismatic, *birkat. 

hermeneutics. Principles of interpretation (from the Greek, "to 
interpret, translate"). The term is often used with reference to the 
study of Jewish and Christian *scriptures. 

Herzl, Theodor. German Jewish author of <t>Der Judenstaat</> (The 
Jewish State) in 1896, which served as a catalyst to the development 
of modern *zionism. 

heterodox. Greek for "other opinioned." Refers to opinions or 
positions that differ from what is considered "*orthodox" or 
"*traditional" at the time. A less judgmental term than "*heretical," 
but with similar import. 

Hejaz. The mountainous area along the western-central coast of the 
Arabian penninsula in which both *Medina (Yathrib) and *Mecca are 
located, and which gave rise to early Islam. 

Hijra(h) (Arabic; also "hegira"). The "emigration" of Muhammad and the 
Muslims from *Mecca to *Medina in 622 CE; the Muslim lunar calendar 
dates from that year (see *AH, *calendar). 


hikma(h) (Arabic, "wisdom"; see Heb. <h>h.okma</>). In Islam, the 
highest level of human understanding, and especially the intuitive 
wisdom illuminating the *mystic. See also *gnostic. 

Hillel. Often called by the title "the Elder." Probably a Babylonian, 
Hillel was an important *sage of the *early Jewish period in 
*Palestine around the turn of the era. His teachings convey the 
*Pharisaic ideal, through many epigrams on humility and peace (found 
in <t>Sayings of the Fathers</> 1-2); and were fundamental in shaping 
the Pharisaic *traditions and modes of interpretation. In *rabbinic 
lore, Hillel is famous for a negative formulation of the "golden rule" 
(recited to a non-Jew): "What is hateful to you do not do to your 
fellow man. That is the whole Torah, the rest is commentary. Go and 
learn it." His style of legal reasoning is continued by his disciples, 
known as *Beit Hillel ("House/School of Hillel"), and is typically 
contrasted with that of Shammai (a contemporary) and his school. 

Hira (Arabic <a>h.ira^'</>). In Islamic *tradition, the mountain (and 
by extension, the cave or grotto there) where *Muhammad began to 
receive the *Quran. 

holocaust (from Greek, entire burnt offering). A term used in recent 
times to refer to the Nazi German policy to exterminate the Jewish 
people in the second world war period. 

holy spirit (= "holy ghost" [archaic]). In Judaism, the presence of 
*God as evidenced in the speech of the *prophets and other divine 
'manifestations; in Christianity, understood more generally as the 
active, guiding presence of *God in the *church and its members. 

holy water. In *classical Christian *tradition, water *consecrated or 
blessed by a *priest for *liturgical purposes. 

homoiousios and homoousios (Greek "similar" and "same" *essence). 
Terms used in the great Christian *christological controversies of the 
4th century in attempting to understand the relationship of *God the 
father to *Jesus Christ the son. See *trinity. Homoousios came to be 
the approved term for *classical Christianity. 

host (from Latin for a "*sacrifice"). Christian *liturgical term for 
the element (normally *unleavened bread or a bread-like wafer) in the 
*eucharist that signifies the body of Christ. See *elevation of the 
host. 

humanism. A modern term used (sometimes pejoratively) of the position 
that focuses on human values and needs without special concern for 
arbitrary religious *traditions or values. Also applied more 
*traditionally to the embracing of classical Greek and Latin values, 
rediscovered through classical learning (as contrasted to late 
Medieval *scholasticism; see also *renaissance). 

huppah or chuppah (Heb.). In Judaism, the special canopy under which a 
marriage ceremony is conducted. 

Husayn. In Islamic history, a son of *Ali and brother of *Hassan who 
is martyred in 680 at Karbala and becomes a hero for *Shiites. 


hymn (from Greek, to sing praise). A general term for poetic chants or 
songs of praise (usually to *God); see *piyyutim, *yigdol, *liturgy, 
*prayer. 

`Iba^da (Arabic). Ibada is literally "service" to *God through worship 
by means of the five *pillars of Islam (*din). 

Ibli^s (Arabic, from Greek <g>diabolos</>, whence English "devil"). 
See *Satan, *angels. 

ibn (Arabic, "son [of]"; Heb., *ben; Aramaic, *bar). Used frequently 
in "patronymics" (naming by identity of father); see also *bat, *bint. 

icon. Usually (in Eastern *Orthodox Christianity) a painted religious 
image -- for example of *Jesus Christ, his mother Mary, or a *saint -- 
understood in Eastern *Orthodoxy to be a copy of a *heavenly image. 
See also *aniconic. 

iconoclastic ("icon smashing") controversy. A century or so, from mid-
8th through mid-9th centuries, of inner Byzantine Christian contention 
over whether to continue to revere *icons (as most *monastics and 
unsophisticated believers tended to do) or smash them (as some 
political and *ecclesiastical *authorities proposed); the controversy 
was focused in Constantinople and influenced by the *aniconic 
*traditions of Judaism and Islam. 

`id (Arabic, "festival, holy day"). Used in names of Muslim special 
days such as <a>`id al-fitr</> at the end of *Ramadan or <a>`id al-
adha</> during the *hajj. 

idolatry. A Greek term for t he worship of what are perceived to be 
"idols" or false "gods," forbidden in the *biblical *traditions of 
Judaism, Christianity and Islam. See also *shirk. 

ih.ra^m (Arabic). Ihram denotes the state of ritual purity and 
dedication entered into by the *pilgrim on *hajj to *Mecca; also the 
special clothing worn for the *hajj. 

ijma^` (Arabic). Ijma or "consensus" (of legal scholars, representing 
all Muslims) is one of the four sources of *Sunni Muslim jurisprudence 
(*fiqh; see also *sharia). 

ijtiha^d (Arabic). Intellectual "effort" of Muslim jurists to reach 
independent religio-legal decisions (thus producing *ijma), a key 
feature of modern Islamic reform; one who exercises ijtihad is a 
*mujtahid. 

ima^m (Arabic). "Leader," specifically of the *salat *prayer service 
in the *mosque; in *Shiite Islam, imam also refers to one of the 
revered (early) leaders of the community (a designated descendant of 
*`Ali) who both ruled in the political sense and also interpreted 
doctrine with infallible, *God-given wisdom. 

i^ma^n (Arabic, "faith"; see Heb. <h>emuna</>). A highly regarded 
religious virtue in the *Quran. One who has iman (*faith) is a 
<a>mu'min</>, "believer." 


imitatio Christi (Latin, "imitation of Christ"). A Christian 
devotional book by Thomas a Kempis (1380-1471) and also the specific 
religious goal of imitating *Jesus *Christ. 

immaculate conception. In *classical Christianity, the claim that the 
*Virgin Mary was conceived under a special dispensation of *God so 
that she remained pure, without the original sin usually transmitted 
through the sexual act. Feasts celebrating her conception were popular 
in the middle ages, although the act of recognizing this as an 
official *doctrine (*dogma) of the Roman *Catholic church was not 
formalized by the *pope until 1854. Not to be confused with the 
doctrine of the *virgin birth of Jesus. 

incarnation (Latin). A term in Christianity applied to the "becoming 
flesh" (human birth) of *Jesus *Christ. 

indulgence. In *classical Christian *doctrine, an indulgence can be 
obtained to help remove the required "temporal" punishment for *sin, 
of oneself or of another; one of the catalysts of the *reformation was 
*Luther's objection to the inappropriate sale of indulgences. 

initiation. See *circumcision, *baptism.

inquisition. Refers especially to the Christian Roman *Catholic court 
for investigating and punishing *heresy. The first *papal inquisitions 
began in the late twelfth century and were centralized under *pope 
Innocent III; another notable court was the Spanish inquisition in the 
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 

intertestamental period. The period in which *early Judaism develops, 
between about 400 BCE (the *traditional end date for Jewish *Bible = 
Christian "*Old Testament") and the 1st century CE (composition of the 
Christian "*New Testament"). The Jewish intertestamental literature 
includes the *Apocrypha (mostly preserved in Greek) and the 
*Pseudepigrapha (works from this period ascribed to ancient authors 
like Enoch, the *patriarchs, and Moses). This literature provides 
important background for understanding the period of Christian 
origins. 

Isaac. One of the *Israelite *patriarchs, son of *Abraham and father 
of *Jacob, in the accounts in the book of Genesis. 

Isla^m (Arabic, "surrender, submitting"). Islam is the name of the 
true *religion, according to the *Quran; one who submits to *God is a 
Muslim. 

isna^d (Arabic, "support"). In Islam, the isnad of a *tradition (see 
*hadith) is the chain or linkage of human reporters that authenticate 
the material as deriving from the time of Muhammad and his companions. 
Compare Christian "*apostolic succession" and Jewish validation of 
*oral law. 


Israel. A name given to the Jewish *patriarch Jacob according to the 
*etiology of Genesis 32.38. In Jewish *biblical times, this name 
refers to the northern tribes, but also to the entire nation. 
Historically, Jews have continued to regard themselves as the true 
continuation of the ancient Israelite national-religious community. 
The term thus has a strong cultural sense. In modern times, it also 
refers to the political state of Israel. Christians came to consider 
themselves to be the "true" Israel, thus also a continuation of the 
ancient *traditions. 

Istanbul. A major city in Muslim Turkey, in the area formerly called 
*Constantinople and even earlier, *Byzantium. 

Jacob. One of the *Israelite *patriarchs, son of Isaac and grandson of 
*Abraham, in the accounts in the book of Genesis. 

ja^hili^ya (Arabic). Al-Jahiliya is the pre-Islamic Arabian age of 
"ignorance," marked by barbarism and unbelief; Islam came to end this 
evil age, according to its view. The period is subdivided in some 
Islamic *traditions -- e.g. the period of Abraham, of Jesus (or 
alternatively, of infidelity, of corruption, etc.). 

Jerusalem. From the religious viewpoints of Judaism, Christianity and 
Islam, the main city in ancient *Palestine (= modern Israel), where 
the *Temple of David/Solomon had been located, *Jesus/Joshua had been 
crucified/resurrected, Muhammad had journeyed to *heaven (his 
<a>miraj</>), among other significant things. Thus for all three 
*religions, in some senses Jerusalem is a or the "holy city." 

Jehovah. Mechanical attempt to represent the special Jewish name for 
*deity, *YHWH. 

Jesuit(s). Common designation for (members of) the Roman *Catholic 
*order called the Society of Jesus (abbreviated SJ), founded in the 
16the century by Ignatius of Loyola. 

Jesus/Joshua ("Jesus" is the Greek attempt to transliterate the 
Semitic name "Joshua"). The somewhat mysterious *Palestinian popular 
figure from the 1st century CE whose death and alleged resurrection as 
*God's *Messiah/*Christ became foundational for an *early Jewish sub-
group known as Nazarenes, from which "Christianity" ultimately 
developed as a separate *religion. 

Jew. See Judaism. 

jiha^d (Arabic). In Islam, jihad denotes "exertion" or struggle in the 
work of *God, including, sometimes, armed force (thus, "holy war"). 

jizyah (Arabic). The special tax levied on *dhimmi in Islam. 

Josephus or Flavius Josephus. Jewish general and author in the latter 
part of the 1st century CE who wrote a massive history ("Antiquities") 
of the Jews and a detailed treatment of the Jewish revolt against Rome 
in 66-73 CE (and his involvement in it), among other things. 

Judah the Prince (Heb., haNasi). Head of the *rabbinic Jewish 
community in *Palestine around 200 CE. Credited with publication of 
the *Mishnah. 

 
Judaism, Jew. From the Hebrew name of the *patriarch Judah, whose name 
also came to designate the tribe and tribal district in which 
*Jerusalem was located. Thus the inhabitants of Judah and members of 
the tribe of Judah come to be called "Judahites" or, in short form, 
"Jews." The religious outlook associated with these people after about 
the 6th century BCE comes to be called "Judaism," and has varying 
characteristics at different times and places: see especially *early 
Judaism, *rabbinic Judaism. See also *Hebrew(s), *Israel. 

judgment, final; see *eschatology, <a>*yawm al-din</>, *hell, *satan. 

John. Personal name (Heb. Yohanan; Greek Yohannes) found frequently in 
Judaism in the Greco-Roman period and in early Christianity. For 
example, John Hyrkan/Hyrcanus (Jewish king, died 104 BCE), John the 
Baptizer/Baptist (contemporary of *Jesus), John son of Zebedee (one of 
Jesus' *apostles), John "the theologian" (author of the *NT book of 
Revelation/Apocalypse), John Chrysostom (4th century *church *father), 
John of Damascus (8th century church father). Also the name given to 
one of the *NT *gospels and to three letters in the *NT. 

justification. In Christian thought, the state (or judicial act) of 
being released by *God from the guilt of sin. 

Ka`ba (Arabic). The sacred cubical shrine in *Mecca, toward which 
Muslims face in *prayer and to which they make *pilgrimages (see 
*hajj); Islamic traditon claims the Kaba (or Kaaba) was built by 
Abraham and Ishmael (see *Quran 2.124-127). 

Kabala(h) or Kabbala(h) (Kabalism) (Heb. qabbala, "receiving, 
*tradition"). A system of Jewish theosophy and *mysticism. See also 
*kavanah, *Zohar. 

kaddish. A *classical Jewish *prayer (mostly in Aramaic) with 
*eschatological focus extolling *God's majesty and kingdom recited at 
the conclusion of each major section of each *liturgical service; a 
long version (called *rabbinic kaddish) follows an act of study; also 
a *prayer by mourners during the first year of bereavement (see 
*shiva, *sheloshim) and on the anniversary of the death of next-of-
kin. Compare the Christian "*Lord's Prayer," Islam's *Fatiha. 

ka^fir (Arabic). In Islam, kafir means "infidel"; see also *pagan. 

kahal (qahal) (Heb., "congregation, gathering"). Used to refer to the 
corporate Jewish community of medieval Europe. See also *synagogue, 
*church, *umma. 

kala^m (Arabic, "speech"). In Islam, kalam refers especially to 
speculative *theology (see also *Mutazilite). 

kalima (Arabic). The formal content of the *shahada(h) witness is 
called the Kalima. See also *creed. 

Karaism, Karaites. Derived from Heb. <h>qara</>, "scripture." A Middle 
Eastern *heterodox Jewish group that arose in opposition to *Rabbinism 
in the 8th century CE, and emphasized the written *scriptures while 
criticizing the *rabbinic use of "*oral law." 


Karbala^' (Arabic). Karbala is the place in Iraq where Husayn, 
grandson of Muhammad and son of *`Ali and Fatima was ambushed and 
killed on his way to assume leadership over the Shiites in Iraq, a 
tragic event commemorated each year on the tenth (<a>`A^shu^ra^'</>) 
of the Muslim month of Muharram (see *calendar).  

kasher, kashrut. See *kosher. 

kavanah (Heb., "intention"). A *mystical instrument of the Jewish 
*kabalists; a meditation which accompanies a ritual act. 

kehilla(h) (Heb., "community"). Jewish sense of community, in a 
particular sense, within the larger *kneset Israel. 

keneset Israel (Heb.). "Assembly of Israel," or the Jewish people as a 
whole. See *kehilla; Muslim *umma; compare Christian *church. 

kerygma (Greek, "proclamation"). Term used technically for the content 
of early Christian preaching as reconstructed by modern scholars. 

ketuva(h) or ketuba(h) (Heb.). The *classical Jewish religious 
marriage certificate. See also *get. 

Ketuvim or Ketubim (Heb., "writings"). The third and last division of 
the *classical Jewish *Bible (*TaNaK), including large poetic and 
epigrammatic works such as Psalms and Proverbs and Job as well as a 
miscellany of other writings (Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, 
Qohelet, Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, Chronicles). 

Khadi^ja. Merchant widow who became the first wife (and business 
partner) of *Muhammad, and mother of *Fatima. Khadija was an important 
influence in encouraging and supporting Muhammad. 

Kha^rijites (Arabic <a>khawa^rij</>, "those who split off or depart"). 
The name of a reactionary Islamic group that emerged during the 
fighting between *`Ali and the *Umayyad founder and tried to establish 
its own purified *caliphate to enforce justice and a more *Quran 
oriented Islam. They rejected "compromising" *Califs such as *Uthman, 
and *Ali in the latter part of his rule. The Kharijites never became a 
major force in overall Islamic history after the death of *`Ali, who 
was murdered by a Kharijite. 

Khawa^rij. See Kharijites.

khila^fah or khalifa (Arabic). See *caliph. 

kiai. An Indonesian Muslim term for a religious teacher of high 
status. 

kibbutz. A communal settlement in modern *Israel. 

kiddush (Heb., "sanctification"; derived from <h>kadosh (qadosh)</>, 
"holy"). A ritual of Jewish *sabbath and other holy days, usually 
accompanied by a cup of wine, which proclaims the holiness of the day. 

kiddushin (Heb., "consecration"). Denotes Jewish betrothal for 
marriage, signifying the sanctity of the relationship. 


kiphah. A Jewish headcovering worn for worship, religious study, 
meals, or at any other time; also called *yarmulke. 

Kingdom of *God. The state of the world in which *God's will is 
fulfilled; expected to be brought into being at the end of time when 
Christ returns. 

kohen or cohen (pl. <h>kohanim</>; Heb.). An Israelite *priest, 
generally descended from the tribe of Levi. 

Koran. See *Quran. 

kosher (Heb., <h>kasher</>). "Proper" or "ritually correct"; 
<h>kashrut</> refers to ritually correct Jewish dietary practices. 
*Traditional Jewish dietary laws are based on *biblical legislation. 
Only land animals that chew the cud and have split hooves (sheep, 
beef; not pigs, camels) are permitted and must be slaughtered in a 
special way. Further, meat products may not be eaten with milk 
products or immediately thereafter. Of sea creatures, only those 
(fish) having fins and scales are permitted. Fowl is considered a meat 
food and also has to be slaughtered in a special manner. 

law. See *torah, *commandments, *oral and written law, *halaka, 
*Shulhan Aruch, *nomos, *shariah, *fiqh. 

leaven. A fermenting substance used to make bread dough rise, making 
it lighter with air bubbles. In Jewish ritual, leaven is not premitted 
at *passover time, when "unleavened" bread (*matzah) is a major 
symbol. *Classical Christianity has also been influenced by this 
prohibition in its *Easter and *eucharist practices (see *host).  

lent. In the Christian *liturgical *calendar, the period of 40 days 
between "Ash Wednesday" and *Easter. 

levarite marriage. From the Latin <l>levir</> for the Hebrew 
<h>yabam</>, brother-in-law; a *biblical system of marriage in which 
the levir marries his brother's widow (Deuteronomy 25.5-10). 

liberal (from Latin, "free [thinker]"). A general term used in 
*religion discussions to indicate a person or view that breaks 
significantly from the *conservative *traditional position(s). See 
also *modernist. 

literalist. A general term used in *religion discussions to indicate a 
person or view that attempts to interpret the *scriptures and other 
recognized *classical religious authorities in a straightforward, 
literal manner. See also *fundamentalism, *verbal inspiration, 
*allegory. 

liturgy (adj. liturgical). Rites of public worship, usually 
institutionalized in relation to *temple, *synagogue, *church, *kaba, 
or *mosque locations and *traditions, but also in other formalized 
observances (see, e.g., *pillars of Islam, *calendar). See also 
*eucharist, *hajj, *hymn, *mass, *passover, *prayer, *shema, *sukkot, 
*siddur. 


logos (Greek, "word," "speech"; divine reason). A Greek term found in 
various connections in hellenistic thought, including the philosophy 
of Philo the 1st century CE Alexandrian Jew where it is comparable to 
the Hebrew <h>hokmah</> ("wisdom"; Greek <g>sofia</>). In the 
Christian Gospel of John, <g>logos</> is equated with the divine 
functions of *Jesus Christ (John 1.1-18). 

Lord's Prayer (or "the Our Father"). A familiar Christian *prayer 
attributed to *Jesus/Joshua (*NT Matthew 6.9-13) and comparable to the 
Jewish *kaddish (see also Islam's *Fatiha). 

love feast. See *agape.
 
lulab. The palm branch used with other plants in the Jewish *Sukkot 
(Tabernacles) celebration. 

Luther. Martin Luther (1483-1546, Germany) was the most celebrated of 
the *protestant Christian *reformers, who is credited with igniting 
the *reformation by challenging Roman *Catholic positions in his "95 
theses" posted in 1517 at Wittenberg, Germany. The Lutheran 
*denominations take their name from him. See also *indulgence, 
*consubstantiation. 

maariv (from Heb., "evening"). Jewish *synagogue evening *prayer or 
service. See also *liturgy. 

Maccabee(s). See *Hasmoneans, *hasidim, *Hannuka.

maggid (Heb., "a speaker"). A *kabalistic notion of how the *holy 
spirit is mediated to the *mystic; later meant a preacher among the 
eighteenth-century *Hasidim. 

magen David (Heb., "shield of *David"). The distinctive six-pointed 
Jewish star, used especially since the 17th century. 

Mahdi (Arabic, "guided one"). An *eschatological, *messianic figure 
expected in *Sunni Islam. 

mah.ram (Arabic). In Islam, mahram designates the bounds of close 
blood relationship within which it is unlawful to marry, and thus 
lawful for members of the opposite sex to associate socially (as 
between brothers and sisters aunts and nephews and so forth). 

Maimonides, or Moses ben Maimon. A major medieval *rabbi, physician, 
scientist, and philosopher (1135-1204), known by the acronym RaMBaM 
(Rabbi Moses ben Maimon). Born in Spain, Maimonides fled from 
persecution to Morocco and finally settled in Egypt. His Major works 
include a legal commentary on the Mishnah, a law code called 
<t>Mishnah Torah</>, and the preeminent work of medieval Jewish 
rational philosophy, <t>The Guide of the Perplexed</>. 

mainstream. Refers to what now appears to be, or to have been, the 
influential majority (or dominant *authority) in a continuum; see 
*classical, *orthodox, *traditional. 


Mani, Manicheism. Mani began a consciously *eclectic religious 
movement in the 3rd century CE in Persia that built to some extent on 
Jewish and Christian foundations (including a *gnostic dualistic 
outlook) and rapidly spread throughout the inhabited world from Spain 
to China, surviving in some areas for several centuries. 

Marcion(ites). A 2nd century Christian (and his followers) who was 
considered *heretical by his opponents because of certain dualistic 
and *gnostic ideas. 

Marranos. An old Spanish term meaning "swine," used to execrate 
medieval Spanish Jews who converted to Christianity but secretly kept 
their Judaism. 

martyr (Greek, "witness"). A general term for persons who endure 
persecution, usually leading to death, for the sake of their religious 
"witness" (profession, position). 

masjid (Arabic, "place of prostration"). See *mosque. 

maskilim (Heb., "the enlightened ones"). Eighteenth- and nineteenth-
century Jews who engaged in secular rationalistic studies and 
facilitated the acculturation of Jews to Western society; members of 
the *haskalah. 

Masoretes, Masoretic text. Derived from <h>masorah</>, meaning 
"*tradition"; the Masoretes were the *rabbis in ninth-century 
*Palestine who sought to preserve the *traditional text of the Bible 
(hence called the Masoretic text), which is still used in contemporary 
*synagogues. The Masoretes were scholars who encouraged Bible study 
and attempted to achieve unlformity by establishing rules for 
correcting the text in matters of spelling, grammar, and 
pronunciation. 

mass (from Latin for "send"). In *classical (Roman *Catholic) 
Christianity, the entire set of *liturgical *prayers and ceremonies 
surrounding the *eucharist. See also *Christmas. 

materialism. A modern perspective in which everything is considered to 
be actually or potentially reducable to physical matter. 

matzah. Jewish *unleavened bread used at *Passover. 

mawlid or maulid (Arabic). "Birthday" celebration, especially used in 
connection with Muhammad (<a>Mawlid al-Nabi</> = birthday of the 
Prophet; compare *Christmas) and the *saints of Islam. 

Mecca. The city in the west-central *Hejaz area of the Arabian 
penninsula from which *Muhammad came, and to which he returned in 
triumph in the *hijra from *Medina. The location of the sacred *Kaba, 
central to Islamic worship (see *hajj). 

Medina (Arabic, "the city" [of the Prophet]). The city of Yathrib, 
about 200 miles north of *Mecca along the *Hejaz (western mountain 
belt) of the Arabian penninsula, in which Muhammad achieved political 
success (see *ansar) and from which the *hijra to Mecca was launched. 


megillah (Heb., "scroll"). Usually refers to the *biblical scroll of 
Esther read on the festival of *Purim. 

melakah (Heb.). Work. 

Mendelssohn, Moses (1729-86). Important German Jewish thinker whose 
ideas helped lay the base for *reform Judaism (see *haskala). 

mendicant. See *Friars, *faqir. 

menorah. Jewish candelabrum with special religious significance; a 
nine-branched menorah is used at *Hannukah, while the seven-branched 
was used in the ancient *Temple. 

merkabah (Heb., "chariot"). The "chariot vision" was an integral 
element of mysticism signifying a mystical vision of divinity. 

messiah. Lit "anointed one"; Greek <g>christos</>. Ancient *priests 
and kings (and sometimes *prophets) of Israel were anointed with oil. 
In early Judaism, the term came to mean a royal descendant of the 
dynasty of David who would restore the united kingdom of Israel and 
Judah and usher in an age of peace, justice and plenty; the redeemer 
figure. The concept developed in many directions over the centuries. 
The messianic age was believed by some Jews to be a time of perfection 
of human institutions; others believed it to be a time of radical new 
beginnings, a new *heaven and earth, after divine *judgment and 
destruction. The title came to be applied to *Jesus/Joshua of Nazareth 
by his followers, who were soon called "Christians" in Greek and Latin 
usage. Jesus is also "Messiah" in Islam (e.g. *Quran 3.45). See also 
*Mahdi. 

mezuzah (pl. <h>mezuzot</>; Heb., "doorpost"). A parchment scroll with 
selected Torah verses (Deuteronomy 6.4-9; 11.13-21) placed in a 
container and affixed to the exterior doorposts (at the right side of 
the entrance) of observant Jewish homes (see Deuteronomy 6.1-4), and 
sometimes also to interior doorposts of rooms. The word <h>shaddai</> 
(almighty) usually is inscribed on the back of the container. 

midrash (pl. midrashim). From Heb. <h>darash</>, "to inquire," whence 
it comes to mean "exposition" (of *scripture). Refers to the 
"commentary" literature developed in classical Judaism that attempts 
to interpret Jewish scriptures in a thorough manner. Literary Midrash 
may focus either on *halaka, directing the Jew to specific patterns of 
religious practice, or on *(h)aggada, dealing with *theological ideas, 
*ethical teachings, popular philosophy, imaginative exposition, 
legend, allegory, animal fables, etc. -- that is, whatever is not 
halaka. 

mih.ra^b (Arabic). The mihrab is the niche in the wall of the *mosque 
that marks the direction (qiblah) to *Mecca, and into which the *imam 
prays. 

mikveh or mikvah. See *miqvah.                   

milhemet mitzvah. From Heb, war of the *covenant; see also *jihad. 


millenarian. From the Latin for "1000" (see also *chiliastic). Having 
to do with the expected millennium, or thousand-year reign of Christ 
prophesied in the *NT book of Revelation ("the *Apocalypse"), a time 
in which the world would be brought to perfection. Millenarian 
movements often grow up around predictions that this perfect time is 
about to begin. See *eschatology. 

millah (Arabic, "*religion"; Turkish millet). A general term usually 
used for one of the varieties of sects/religions (over against *din, 
for the true religion of Islam), such as <a>millat Ibra^hi^m</> (the 
religion of Abraham). In *Ottoman Turkey, millet was used for the 
religious groups within the empire, but is also used more generally 
for any major sub-group in society (people, nation, state). 

min (pl. <h>minim</>; Heb.). A *heretic, sectarian, or schismatic, 
according to classical Judaism. The term was applied both to 
Christians, especially Christian Jews, and to people of "gnostic" 
tendencies, among others; see *birkat. 

minaret. Tower-like architectural feature of many *mosques, from which 
the *muadhdhin/muezzin recites the call (*adhan) for *prayer (*salat). 

minbar (Arabic). The raised pulpit near the *mihrab in a Muslim 
*mosque, from which the Friday sermon (<a>khutba</>) is delivered. See 
also *altar, *bima. 

mincha(h) (from Heb. for afternoon *sacrifice). Afternoon *prayers in 
Jewish *synagogue. 

minyan. A quorum of ten Jews (for *Orthodox Jews, ten males) above age 
thirteen necessary for public services and certain other religious 
ceremonies to be considered valid. 

miqvah or mikveh (Heb.). A Jewish communal bath (like *baptism) for 
washing away ritual impurity by immersion. 

miracle. A general term for special events that seem inexplicable by 
normal (rational) means. Miracle reports are frequent in Jewish and 
Christian *scriptures and early *traditions, while in Islam, the only 
"miracle" associated with Muhammad is said to be the reception and 
transmission of the *Quran. See also *magic. 
               
Mishnah (Heb., "teaching"). The digest of the recommended Jewish *oral 
halaka as it existed at the end of the 2nd century and was collated, 
edited, and revised by *Rabbi *Judah the Prince. The code is divided 
into six major units and sixty-three minor ones. The work is the 
authoritative legal *tradition of the early *sages and is the basis of 
the legal discussions of the *Talmud. See also *pilpul. 

mitnaged (pl. <h>mitnagaim</>; Heb., "opposer(s)"). *Traditionalist 
and rationalistic Jewish opponents of eighteenth-century Jewish 
*Hasidism. 

mitzvah (pl. <h>mitzvot</>; Heb., "commandment, obligation"). A ritual 
or *ethical duty or act of obedience to *God's will. See also 
*commandments. 


modernism. A general term used in discussions of *religion to indicate 
the perspective that focuses on modern applicability of religious 
principles. See also *liberal, *conservative. 

monarchianism (from Greek, for "sole ruler"). An early Christian 
position that took various forms in the attempt to protect 
monotheistic ideals (the unity and soverignty of *God). "Dynamic" 
monarchians saw *Jesus *Christ as *God's adopted son (see 
*adoptionism), while "modal" monarchians considered the different 
names used in *trinity discussions to be convenient designations for 
ways in which the *deity was perceived under various historical 
conditions. 

monastery (adj. monastic; from Greek for "secluded dwelling"). 
Especially in Christianity, an isolated institution in which *monks 
(or *nuns) gather and often live communally, in a disciplined quest of 
religious fulfilment. See also *Abbot. 

monasticism. The way of life or *tradition of Christian monastics 
(*monks or *nuns) living in *monasteries. 

monk (from Greek, "a loner, a solitary person"). Especially in 
Christianity, persons (normally male) who pledged their existence to 
what they considered to be *God's highest purposes, to be pursued in 
relative isolation from otherwise usual human pursuits (e.g. in a 
*monastery, practicing *celibacy and religious discipline). 

monolithic (Greek, composed of a single stone). Usually used with 
reference to rigid, fixed, unchanging systems -- often in negative 
statements, such as "Judaism was by no means monolithic." 

monophysite (Greek, "one nature"). A post-*Nicea Christian position 
holding that *Jesus *Christ had but one, divine nature (rather than 
both human and divine natures, as *classical Christianity decided). 

monotheism (Greek, one *deity). The *belief that there is only one 
real and ultimate deity. 

montanism. An early Christian group (followers of the *prophet 
Montanus and his female prophet companions, Priscilla and Maximilla, 
in Asia Minor, around 160 CE) that believed that divine *revelations 
took place in their midst, looked for the arrival of the end times 
(see *eschatology) and resisted the growing influence of emerging 
*classical Christianity. Tertullian became a montanist in his later 
Christian life. 

morals (Latin, "customs"). See *ethics.

mortal sin. See *sin.

Moses. The great *biblical personality (c. thirteenth century BCE) who 
is credited with leading the people of Israel out of Egyptian bondage 
and teaching them the divine laws at Sinai. He is also described as 
first of the Jewish *prophets. Throughout Jewish history he is the 
exalted man of *faith and leadership without peer. 


mosque. English corruption of the Arabic word <a>masjid</>, "place of 
prostration" for performing the *salat. See also *mihrab, *qiblah. 
Functionally, the mosque as an architectural entity is similar to 
*synagogue and *church. 

mu'adhdhin (Arabic, "caller"; see *adhan). More popularly spelled and 
pronounced "muezzin," the muadhdhin serves to call the Muslim faithful 
to *salat (*prayer worship). 

mufti (Arabic). A Muslim legal scholar who can deliver a *fatwa. 

muha^jiru^n (Arabic, "emigrants""). In Islam, used especially for 
those who accompanied *Muhammad on the *hijra. See also *hajj. 

Muh.ammad. Muhammad is the ultimate *prophet/*rasul of Islamic radical 
monotheism whose revelations are collected in the *Quran and whose 
efforts in Arabia (died 11 *AH = 632 *CE) provided impetus for Islam 
to become a world *religion. 

Muhammadiyah. Twentieth-century Indonesian Islamic reform movement 
emphasizing purity of *faith and practices and service to fellow 
Muslims, especially through education. 

mujtahid (Arabic). A Muslim jurist who exercises *ijtihad. 

Muslim (Arabic, "submitter"). One who follows Islam. Also the name of 
a famous Islamic collector of *hadith in the late 9th century. 

Mutazila(h) (Arabic, "standing aloof"). The Mutazilites in Islamic 
history (especially 9th century *CE) are the "rationalist" and 
speculative *theologians and philosophers (see *kalam) against whom 
the emerging *classical position reacted. The issues included the 
nature of the *Quran (created or eternal) and the problem of human 
free-will in relation to predestination/determinism. 

mystery *religions. Designation used for a group of ancient Greco-
Roman religions characterized by an emphasis on a central "mystery" 
(often concerning fertility and immortality). In many ways, both 
*early Judaism and *early Christianity include characteristics of such 
"mysteries." 

mystic, mysticism (adj. mystical; from Greek for "initiant" into 
religious "mysteries"). A vaguely used term to indicate certain types 
of behavior or perspective that goes beyond the rational in the quest 
of what is considered to be the ultimate in religious experience 
(often described as union or direct communion with *deity). See also 
*kabalah, *gnostic, *sufi/sufism, *hikma, *tariqa. 

nabi or navi (Heb., pl. <h>nebiim</>; also Arabic). A "*prophet" in 
ancient Israel; also in Islam. *Muhammad is the Muslim nabi par 
exellence (see also *rasul). "Nevi'im" (or Nebiim) became a 
designation for a section of the Jewish *scriptures; see *TaNaK. 

nasi (Heb., "prince, leader"). See *Judah the Prince. 

nebiim. See *nabi.


neo-orthodoxy. Designation for a modern Christian approach began among 
*liberal thinkers who saw the need to revive commitment to 
*traditional *protestant ideas such as the centrality of *God's word 
(both written and living) and of *faith and of *God's grace in 
providing salvation from *sin without withdrawing from serious 
*rational discussion of contemporary issues. 

neo-Platonism. A line of development from the philosophy of *Plato 
that emphasized the *mystical dimensions of its dualistic view of 
reality, so that union with the ultimate One was a major goal. 
Influenced the development of *mysticism in each of the three 
religious *traditions. 

New Testament (= NT). The collection of Christian *canonical writings 
that together with "the *Old Testament" (see also *Apocrypha) 
constitute the Christian *Bible. 

Nicea. A place in northern Asia Minor (modern Turkey) where the first 
"*ecumenical" council of *Christendom was held in 325. See also *creed 
(Nicene), *Arius, *Athanasius. 

nihilism. A modern position that holds that ultimately nothing (Latin 
<l>nihil</>) can be known or understood; life has no "meaning." 

nomos (pl. <g>nomoi</>). A Greek term meaning "*law" that comes to be 
used in similar senses to "*torah", referring to the *Pentateuch, all 
of Jewish *scripture, and even *proto-rabbinic *halaka; an expert in 
<g>nomos</> is termed a <g>nomikos</>. 

NT. See *New Testament. 

nun. See *monk, *monastic, *monastery.

observance, observant. Refers primarily to religious rules and 
practices, and to those who are rigorous about keeping them; see 
*calendar, *cult, *liturgy, *commandments, *halaka, *law, *sharia, 
*torah, *tradition (etc.). 

Old Testament (= OT). The name *traditionally given by Christians to 
the Jewish *biblical writings that together with "the *New Testament" 
constitute the Christian *Bible. For most *Protestant Christians, OT 
is identical to the classical Jewish Bible, while for *classical 
(Roman *Catholic, Greek *Orthodox, etc.) Christianity, OT also 
includes "the *Apocrypha." 

omer (Heb., "sheaf"). In Judaism, the sheaf of grain offering brought 
to the temple during *Passover, on Nisan 16; thus also the name of the 
seven-week period between Passover/Pesah and *Shabuot also known as 
the Sephirah. See also *calendar. 

oral law. In *traditional Jewish *pharisaic/*rabbinic thought, *God 
reveals instructions for living through both the written *scriptures 
and through a parallel process of orally transmitted *traditions. 
Critics of this approach within Judaism include *Sadducees and 
*Karaites. 


orders. In *classical Christianity, one of the *sacraments is the 
taking of "holy orders," or entering full-time institutional service 
to *God and the *church. See *priest, *monk, *nun, *ordination.  

ordination. In Christianity, the ceremony of "investing" a person with 
ministerial or *priestly office and *authority. *Rabbinic Judaism has 
a similar process. See also *orders, *apostolic succession, *semikah. 

original *sin. In *classical Christian thought, the fundamental state 
of sinfulness and guilt, inherited from the first man Adam, that 
infects all of humanity but can be removed through depending on Christ 
and the *grace he provides (e.g. in *baptism). 

orthodox. From the Greek for "correct opinion/outlook," as opposed to 
*heterodox or *heretical. The judgment that a position is "orthodox" 
depends on what are accepted as the operative "rules" or authorities 
at the time. Over the course of history, the term "orthodox" has come 
to denote the dominant surviving forms that have proved themselves to 
be "*traditional" or "*classical" or "*mainstream" (e.g. *rabbinic 
Judaism; the Roman *Catholic and Greek *Orthodox Christian *churches; 
*sunni Islam), although new, relative "orthodoxies" constantly emerge 
(and often disappear). See also *neo-orthodoxy, *orthopraxy. 

orthopraxy (Greek, "correct action/activity"). In contrast to 
*orthodoxy (right *belief), the emphasis in this term concerns 
conduct, both *ethical and *liturgical. Historically, Judaism and 
Islam have tended to emphasize orthopraxy relatively more than 
orthodoxy, while *classical Christianity tended to shift the balance 
in the other direction. 

OT = *Old Testament. 

Ottomans. A powerful Muslim clan that settled in what is now Turkey 
and established a Muslim dynasty that ruled from about the 13th 
century CE until 1924 (when it fell to the rebellious "young Turks"). 
It was the major preserver of "official" Islamic continuity in the 
Mediterranean and adjacent areas during most of that period. 

pacifism. A modern term for positions opposed to warfare (e.g. 
*Quakerism). 

pagan (from Latin for villiage peasant). In a general sense, neither 
Jewish nor Christian (nor Muslim), *traditionally with negative 
connotations (an irreligious person, heathen); see *gentile, *kafir. 
The term also has come to be adopted by some modern persons or 
movements that dissociate themselves from the "Judeo-Christian" 
*tradition. 

Palestine (Greek form representing "Philistines," for the seacoast 
population encountered by early geographers). An ancient designation 
for the area between Syria (to the north) and Egypt (to the south), 
between the Mediterranean Sea and the River Jordan; roughly, modern 
Israel.  

papal. See *pope. 


paradise (Greek, "park, garden"; possibly derived from Heb. 
<h>pardes</>). Term used to describe the location of the creation of 
humankind (see garden of *Eden) as well as the destination where those 
favored by *God will ultimately arrive (especially in Islam). Also 
used in *apocalyptic texts for one of the *heavens or levels above the 
inhabited earth, near *God. 

parasha(h) (Heb., "section"). Prescribed weekly section of *biblical 
*Torah (*Pentateuch) read in Jewish *synagogue *liturgy (ordinarily on 
an annual cycle). See *haftarah. 

parousia (Greek, "presence"). A technical term in Christian 
scholarship for the "second coming" or "return" of *Jesus *Christ in 
the end times (see *eschatology). 

Passover (Hebrew <h>pesah</>). The major Jewish spring holiday (with 
agricultural aspects) also known as <h>hag hamatzot</> (festival of 
*unleavened bread, <g>azyma</>) commemorating the *Exodus or 
deliverance of the Hebrew people from Egypt (see Exodus 12-13). The 
festival lasts eight days, during which Jews refrain from eating all 
*leavened foods and products. A special ritual meal (called the 
*Seder) is prepared, and a *traditional narrative (called the 
*Haggadah), supplemented by hymns and songs, marks the event. See 
*calendar, *liturgy; also Christian *Easter. 

Paul. A popular name in Christian history, especially because of the 
significance of "the *apostle" Paul in earliest Christian times. This 
Paul was not one of *Jesus' original followers, but as a devoted Jew 
he at first persecuted the emerging "Christian" movement. After 
becoming an advocate of *Jesus as *messiah, Paul preached his *gospel 
from *Jerusalem to *Rome, and perhaps beyond, focusing on *gentile 
audiences. Several of the writings (letters) in the *NT are attributed 
to Paul. 

patriarchs. 1. A common designation for the early founding figures of 
ancient Semitic *tradition (before *Moses) such as *Abraham, Isaac, 
Jacob, and the twelve tribal figureheads of Israel (Judah, Benjamin, 
etc.). 2. One of the *bishops of the four major early Christian 
centers (or *Sees) -- Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch, or Alexandria, with 
Constantinople later added as a fifth. After the break with Rome (see 
*great schism), the term may refer to the head of any of the national 
divisions of the Eastern *church. 

patristic (Latin, referring to the fathers). A term used especially in 
Christian scholarship to designate important thinkers and/or authors 
who helped develop the *classical position -- e.g. Irenaeus, 
Tertullian (see *montanist), Cyprian, *Augustine, *John Chrysostom, 
etc. 

penance. The *sacramental rite, in Christian Roman *Catholicism, 
consisting of repentance, confession to a *priest, payment of the 
temporal penalty for one's sins, and forgiveness. 

penitent. Especially in *classical Christianity, one who does penance; 
also one involved in a special prolonged period of seeking forgiveness 
through prescribed acts. 


Pentateuch (from Greek for "five books/scrolls"). The five books 
attributed to *Moses: Genesis, *Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and 
Deuteronomy; known in Jewish *tradition as <h>Torat Mosheh</> (the 
teaching of Moses), or simply the *Torah. 

Pentacost (Greek for "50th [day]"). See *Shabuot/Shavuot, *calendar. 

Perushim; see *Pharisees. 

Pesach; see *Passover, *calendar. 
                          
Pharisees (Hebrew <h>perushim</>, lit. "separatists" (?); adj. 
pharisaic). The name given to a group or movement in *early Judaism, 
the origin and nature of which is unclear. Many scholars identify them 
with the later *sages and *rabbis who taught the *oral and written 
law; Sigal and some others see them as a complex of pietistic and 
zealous separatists, distinct from the *proto-rabbis. According to 
*Josephus (see also *NT), the Pharisees believed in the immortality of 
souls and resurrection of the dead, in a balance between 
*predestination and free will, in *angels as active divine agents, and 
in authoritative *oral law. In the early Christian materials, 
Pharisees are often depicted as leading opponents of *Jesus/Joshua and 
his followers, and are often linked with "scribes" but distinguished 
from the *Sadducees.  

Philo Judeus (= "the Jew") of Alexandria. Greek speaking (and writing) 
prolific Jewish author in the 1st century CE. Provides extensive 
evidence for Jewish thought in the Greco-Roman ("hellenistic") world 
outside of *Palestine. 

phylacteries (Greek for "protectors"). See *tefillin. 

piety. A general term for religious devotion.

pilgrimage. A general term for religiously motivated visit to a site 
considered religiously significant. In Islam, this is a central 
*pillar (see *hajj, also *umra), but the practice is also extended in 
various directions in all three *traditions (see *aliya, *Jerusalem, 
*Rome); often pilgrimages are made to sites associated with *saints or 
*relics of *veneration. 

pillars of Islam (*arkan ad-*din). The five basic devotional-ritual 
duties of Islam (see *ibada): *shahada, testifying that "There is no 
god but *God, and Muhammad is the Messenger of *God"; *salat, five 
daily *prayer services; *zakat, almsgiving; *sawm, *fasting during 
daylight in the month of *Ramadan; *hajj, *pilgrimage to *Mecca (see 
also *umra). 

pilpul. Dialectical rational method of studying Jewish *oral law as 
codified in the *Talmud(s). 

Pittsburg Platform. Early statement of American *Reform Jewish 
principles. See class handout. 

piyyutim. Medieval Jewish *synagogue *hymns and poems added to 
standard *prayers of the *talmudic *liturgy. 


Plato. Ancient Greek philosopher (4th century BCE), student of 
Socrates and teacher of *Aristotle, whose identification of reality 
with the non-material world of ideas ("the ideal world") played an 
enormous role in subsequent philosophy and *religion (see *neo-
Platonism, *dualism). Father of "Platonism" and the Platonic Academy 
as a philosophical institution in Athens. 
  
platonism. See *Plato. 

pluralism. A general term for situations in which a variety of 
perspectives are accommodated, or at least tolerated, within the 
recognized system; e.g. America as a pluralistic society. 

pogrom. From the Russian word for "devastation"; an unprovoked attack 
or series of attacks upon a Jewish community. 

pondok pesantren. An Islamic boarding school in Indonesia with a 
*traditional curriculum based on the Quran. 

pope (adj. papal; from the Latin for "father"). In Christian history, 
a mode of addressing important *church leaders, and especially the 
*bishop of Rome; thence it became a technical term for that bishop, as 
leader of the entire *Catholic (universal) *church. The term is still 
used less restrictively in eastern *orthodox Christianity. 

prayer. A general term used for addressing petitions (or praise) to 
the *deity. See *amida, *birkat, *dhikr, *dua, *eucharist, *Fatiha, 
*kaddish, *Lord's Prayer, *maariv, *mincha, *salat, *shemoneh esreh. 
See also *hymn, *liturgy, *siddur. 

predestination. The idea that one's eternal destiny is determined 
beforehand, from the beginning of time, by the will and plan of the 
*deity.   

presbyter (from Greek for "elder person"). In *early Christianity, one 
of the leaders of a community/church, sometimes synonymous with 
*episkopos. In *Protestant Christianity, the Presbyterian denomination 
follows the guidance of the representatives (called presbyters, the 
presbytery) of the affiliated congregations. 

priest (see also *kohen). A functionary usually associated, in 
antiquity (including early Judaism), with *temples and their rites 
(including *sacrifice). In *classical Christianity, the office of 
priest was developed (see *ordination, *clergy) in connection with 
celebration of the *mass and *eucharist, and with *celibacy as an 
important qualification especially in Roman *Catholicism. Islam has no 
equivalent for priests. 

priesthood of believers. A principle of *Luther and the *protestant 
Christian *reformation, that each individual believer has direct 
access to *deity, without needing special intercession by a *priest. 

primacy. A general term for precedence, used especially in 
Christianity to refer to the position of the *pope in relation to 
other *bishops (he is sometimes called the "primate"). 


prophet (from Greek, to "speak for" or "speak forth"). Name given to 
accepted spokespersons of *God (or their opposites, "false prophets"). 
Became a designation for a section of the Jewish *scriptures; see 
*nabi, *rasul, *TaNaK. 

protestant. The name given to the Christian groups produced by the 
*reformation, as opposed to Roman *Catholicism (and *classical 
Christianity in general). 
            
proto-Judaism = *early Judaism.                           

proto-rabbis. Pre-70 CE *sages who set the foundations of post-70 CE 
*rabbinic Judaism before the *ordination of rabbis became formalized 
in its classical sense. 

pseudepigrapha (adj. pseudepigraphical), from Greek <g>pseudos</>, 
"deceit, untruth," and <g>epigraphe</>, "writing, inscription." A name 
given to a number of *intertestamental *apocryphal writings that are 
implausibly attributed to an ancient worthy such as Adam/Eve, Enoch, 
Abraham, *Moses, Isaiah, Ezra, etc. 

purgatory. In classical (Roman *Catholic) Christian thought, an 
intermediate state after death where one can finish satisfying the 
temporal punishments for one's sins and purify one's soul before being 
admitted to heaven. 

Purim (see also, *megilah. A Jewish festival commemorating the 
deliverance of Jews in Persia as described in the *biblical book of 
Esther. Held in late winter (between *Hannukah and *Passover), on the 
14th of Adar. See *calendar. 

puritan. The name given to a movement in early 17th century English 
Christianity that aimed at "purifying" the *church (along *Calvinistic 
lines), which was perceived to be failing in certain respects. Some 
puritans left England for the "new world" in search of greater 
religious freedom and founded the Massachusetts colony. See also 
*congregationalism. 

qabbala (Heb.). See *kabala.

qadar (Arabic). In Islamic thought, divine determination of human 
actions and events; predestination by the decree of *God. 

qadi (Arabic). An Islamic religious judge. 

qaraite (Heb.). See *karaite

qiblah (Arabic, "orientation"). The direction towards *Mecca in which 
Muslims situate themselves for *prayer (*salat), marked by the *mihrab 
in the wall of each *mosque. 

qiya^s (Arabic, "analogy"). In Islamic jurisprudence (*fiqh), qiyas is 
one of the four accepted *Sunni methods of deriving law (see also 
*sharia). Legal principles from *Quran or *hadith can be extended by 
analogy to cover other similarly appropriate situations; see also 
*ijtihad. 


Quakerism. Nickname for "the Society of Friends," a form of 
*protestant Christianity first associated with George Fox and his 
followers in 17th century England, with emphasis on the subjective 
spiritual aspects of *religion. See also *pacifism. 

Qumran or Khirbet Qumran. The site near the northwest corner of the 
Dead Sea in modern Israel (west bank) where the main bulk of the 
Jewish "*Dead Sea Scrolls" were discovered abound 1946. The "Qumran 
community" that apparently produced the scrolls seems to have 
flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, and is 
usually identified with the Jewish *Essenes, or a group like them. 

Qur'a^n (Arabic, "recitation"). Quran (or "Koran") is the name given 
to the collection of Islamic *scriptures, consisting of 114 *suras 
(sections), believed to have been revealed verbatim orally to 
*Muhammad over a period of time through the *angel *Gabriel.        

Quraysh. The leading Meccan tribe, to which Muhammad belonged. 

Rabb (Arabic, "Lord"). In Islam, a frequent title for *God (*Allah). 
From the same Semitic root as Hebrew *rabbi. 

rabbi (adj. rabbinic). Hebrew, "my master," an authorized teacher of 
the *classical Jewish *tradition (see *oral law) after the fall of the 
second *Temple in 70 CE. The role of the rabbi has changed 
considerably throughout the centuries. *Traditionally, rabbis serve as 
the legal and spiritual guides of their congregations and communities. 
The title is conferred after considerable study of *traditional Jewish 
sources. This conferral and its responsibilities is central to the 
chain of *tradition in Judaism. 

radical *reformation. See *anabaptist.

Ramad.a^n. In Islam, the 9th month, Ramadan, is the holy month of 
*fasting, during which the Quran was first revealed. See *calendar. 

RaSHI. Acronym for *Rabbi Solomon (= Sholomo) ben Isaac (1040-1105), a 
great medieval *sage of Troyes, France. He is the author of 
fundamental commentaries on the *Talmud, and one of the most beloved 
and influential commentaries on the *Bible. Characterized by great 
lucidity and pedagogy, his comments emphasized the plain, 
straightforward sense of a text. 

rasu^l (Arabic, "messenger"). In the Muslim *shahada, rasul has 
specific reference to *Muhammad as the special *prophet (*nabi) of 
*God entrusted with a divine message: "There is no god but *God 
(*Allah), and Muhammad is *God's rasul." Rasul is a type of 
*nabi/*prophet, or *apostle. 

rationalism. A general term for the perspective that holds that 
everything is actually or potentially understandable by human reason. 
See also *agnosticism, *atheism, *mysticism. 

ra'y (from Arabic, "to see"). In Islamic jurisprudence (*fiqh), ray 
indicates personal opinion in adapting law (see *sharia). 

rebbe. The title of the spiritual leader of the *Hasidim; see *zaddik. 


Rechabites. A dissenting movement in ancient Israel generally devoted 
to certain ascetic practices and a simple lifestyle (see Jeremiah 
35.1-19). 

Reconstructionist Judaism. Founded by Mordecai M. Kaplan (1881-1982), 
this represents a recent development in American Judaism, and attempts 
to focus on Judaism as a civilization and culture constantly adapting 
to insure survival in a natural social process. The central academic 
institution is the Reconstructionist *Rabbinical College in the 
Philadelphia suburbs. See also *Reform and *Conservative Judaism. 

redactor. An editor, especially with reference to ancient books such 
as the Jewish and Christian *scriptures. 

redemption. A term from ancient economic vocabulary concerning the 
freeing of slaves by purchasing (manumission), applied to the 
religious concept (especially in Christianity) of *salvation from 
slavery to *sin (being "redeemed").== in judaism? 

Reform Judaism. Modern movement originating in 18th century Europe 
that attempts to see Judaism as a rational *religion adaptable to 
modern needs and sensitivities. The ancient *traditions and laws are 
historical relics that need have no binding power over modern Jews. 
See *Pittsburg Platform, *Geiger. The central academic institution of 
American Reform Judaism is the Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, and 
it is represented also by the Central Conference of American *Rabbis. 
Compare *Conservative and *Reconstructionist Judaism. 
                                          
reformation. Name given to the *protestant Christian movements (and 
the period itself) in the 16th century in which Roman *Catholicism was 
opposed in the interest of "reforming" Christianity to what was 
considered its earliest known form (found in the *New Testament). See 
*Luther, *Calvin, *Anabaptists. 

relativism. The modern position that affirms that everything (except 
this statement!) is relative to the particularities of the given 
situation. 

relics. In popular Christian religiousity, objects or parts of the 
body (e.g., clothing, teeth, bones) left behind after the decay of the 
corpse, which are *venerated for *saints of the Roman *Catholic and 
Eastern *churches. 

religion. A general term for a system of *beliefs and/or practices 
thought to enhance human contact with realities otherwise inaccessible 
or unperceived.   

renaissance (Latin). Name usually given to the "rebirth" of classical 
knowledge that erupted in the 15th century and provided background for 
the *protestant *reformation and associated events in Europe. The term 
is also used in other connections. 

repentance. A term used especially in *protestant Christianity to 
indicate the subjective state of sorrow and concern over *sin, on the 
way to *salvation. See also *penance. 


responsa. Also called <h>teshubot</>, from <h>sheelot uteshubot</> 
(questions and answers); answers to questions on *halaka and 
observances, given by Jewish scholars on topics addressed to them. 
They originated during the *geonic period, and are still used as a 
means of modern updating and revision of halaka. See also *fatwa. 

resurrection. The idea that dead persons who have found favor with the 
*deity will ultimately (in *eschatological times) be raised from the 
dead, with restored bodily form. 

revelation. A general term for self-disclosure of the divine (*God 
reveals to humans), which is often considered to be focussed in the 
revealed *scriptures. Also the name of a specific Christian *biblical 
book, the "Apocalypse" (Greek, "uncovered") or "Revelation" (Latin). 

revivals. Events of spiritual awakening or high religious involvement; 
specifically in modern Christianity, commonly in *evangelical circles, 
special meetings to encourage such awakening or interest. 

romanticism. A term to describe the modern perspective that focusses 
on subjective feeling in relating to art and nature. 

Rosh Hashanah (Heb., "beginning of the year"). Jewish New Year 
celebration in the fall of the year, the month of Tishri. See also 
*calendar. 

Rosh Hodesh (Heb., "beginning of a lunar month"). The New Moon 
Festival. See also *calendar. 

Sabbath. The seventh day of the week (Heb., <h>shabbat</>), recalling 
the completion of the creation and the *Exodus from Egypt. It is a day 
symbolic of new beginnings and one dedicated to *God, a most holy day 
of rest. The *commandment of rest is found in the *Bible and has been 
elaborated by the *rabbis. It is a special duty to study *Torah on the 
Sabbath and to be joyful. Sabbaths near major festivals (see 
*calendar) are known by special names. 

Sabbatianism. A messianic movement begun in the 17th century by 
Sabbatai Zvi/Zebi (1626-1676), who ultimately converted to Islam. 

sacrament. Especially in *classical Christianity, a formal religious 
rite (e.g. *baptism, *eucharist) regarded as sacred for its perfect 
ability to convey divine blessing; in some *traditions (especially 
*Protestant), it is regarded as not effective in itself but as a sign 
or symbol of spiritual reality or *truth. 

sacrifice (Latin, "perform a sacred act"). A general term for the 
giving up of things of value for religious purposes, such as (1) 
*liturgical sacrifices of animal life or of other valuables (grain, 
wine, etc.), and (2) personal sacrifices of time or money or talents 
or potential (e.g. taking holy *orders). In *classical Christianity, 
the death of *Jesus is interpreted as a sacrifice for *sin on behalf 
of humankind. Islam retains a *liturgical use of animal sacrifice 
especially in connection with the *hajj (see also *calendar). 

sacrilege. A general term for violation of that which is considered 
sacred. See *blasphemy, *shirk. 


s.adaqa^t (or zadakat; Arabic). Charity (voluntary alms), going beyond 
the obligatory *zakat tax; righteous acts. 

Sadducees. An *early Jewish sub-group whose origins and ideas are 
uncertain. It probably arose early in the 2nd century BCE and ceased 
to exist when the *Temple was destroyed in 70 CE. Sadducees supported 
*priestly *authority and rejected *traditions not directly grounded in 
the *Pentateuch, such as the concept of personal, individual life 
after death. They are often depicted as in conflict with the 
*Pharisees. 

Safavid. A *Shiite Iranian/Persian dynasty that fought against the 
*Ottoman rulers. 

sage. For Judaism, see *hakam. 

saint. Name given to persons considered to be "holy." Used in a 
special sense in Roman *Catholicism for deceased persons who are 
believed to have entered *God's presence (see *heaven) and thus can 
provide special benefits to humankind (e.g. intercession by the 
saints). Used more generally in *protestant Christianity for all 
believers. See also *wali, *zaddik. 

saki^na (Arabic). Sakina is a divine "tranquility" that is believed to 
descend when the *Quran is recited. 

S.ala^t (Arabic). Salat designates the obligatory Muslim *prayer 
service held five times daily, one of the five *pillars of Islam 
(*din). 

salvation. In Christian thought, most generally, liberation from the 
power and effects of sin; often refers to an experience or series of 
experiences leading to a sense of liberation; sometimes refers to the 
expected liberation of a Christian after death. 

Samaritans. Another of the numerous sub-groups in *early Judaism (see 
also *Sadducees, *Pharisees, *Essenes) and residents of the district 
of Samaria north of Jerusalem and Judah in what is now Israel.  They 
are said to have recognized only the *Pentateuch as *scripture and Mt. 
Gerizim as the sacred center rather than Jerusalem. There was ongoing 
hostility between Samaritans and Judahites. Samaritan communities 
exist to the present. 

Sanhedrin (from Greek for "assembly" [of persons seated together]; see 
also *synagogue, *church). A legislative and judicial body from the 
period of *early Judaism and into *rabbinic times. *Traditionally 
composed of 71 members. 

Satan (Hebrew, "accuser/adversary"). The opponent of *God (or of God's 
supporters) in Hebrew *tradition (and thence into Christianity and 
Islam) who is often depicted as a fallen *angel (also called "the 
Devil"; in Arabic *Iblis) amd is considered to be in charge of evil 
and its influences (with "demons" as his aides), and to rule over 
*Hell until the final *judgment (see <a>*yawm al-din</>). 

S.awm or saum (Arabic). Sawm refers to "*fasting" during daylight in 
the month of *Ramadan, one of the five *pillars of Islam (*din). 


sayyid (Arabic). A title borne by descendants of the Prophet 
Muh.ammad. 

schism (Greek, "split, division"). See *great schism. 

schismatic. One who causes a split or division (*schism). See 
*heretic, *min. 

scholasticism. A general term for highly organized and highly 
*rationalistic scholarly developments and discussions according to 
well developed conventions. In Christianity, the rise of universities 
in 12th-13th century Europe was a high-point for scholasticism (e.g. 
Thomas Aquinas). Judaism and Islam experienced similar scholastic 
flourishing in that general period in the west (and earlier in the 
east, especially for Islam). 

scriptures. General designation for *canonical or *biblical writings. 

sect. A general designation for a definable sub-group, often with 
negative overtones. See also *cult, *denomination. 

secular (Latin, "of this world"). A general term for non-religious, or 
the opposite of religious. 

seder (Heb., for "order"; pl. sedarim). The *traditional Jewish 
evening service and opening of the celebration of *Passover, which 
includes special food symbols and narratives. The order of the service 
is highly regulated, and the *traditional narrative is known as the 
*Passover *Haggadah. Also one of the six divisions of the *Mishna; or 
one of the 154 sections into which *Torah/*Pentateuch is divided for a 
three year cycle of liturgical readings in *synagogue. See also 
*siddur. 

See (from Latin, "seat"). A term used in Christianity to refer to the 
*ecclesiastical location of a *bishop's *authority (e.g. "the See of 
Rome"), and by extension to the authority itself. 

semikah (Heb.). *Rabbinic *ordination. 

Sephardim (adj. Sephardic; Heb., Sephardi). The designation Sepharad 
in *biblical times refers to a colony of exiles from Jerusalem 
(Obadiah 20), possibly in or near Sardis{??}; in the medieval period, 
Sephardi(c) Jews are those descended from those who lived in Spain and 
Portugal (the Iberian peninsula) before the expulsion of 1492. As a 
cultural designation, the term refers to the complex associated with 
Jews of this region and its related *diaspora in the Balkans and 
Middle East (especially in Islamic countries). The term is used in 
contradistinction to *Ashkenazi, but it does not refer, thereby, to 
all Jews of non-Ashkenazi origin. 

sephira(h) or sefira (Heb., "counting, number"; pl. sefirot). See also 
*omer. In Jewish *kabala, the sefirot are the primary emanations or 
manifistations of *deity that together make up the fulness 
(<g>pleroma</>) of the godhead. 


Septuagint. Strictly speaking, refers to the ancient Greek translation 
of the Hebrew *Pentateuch, probably made during the reign of Ptolemy 
II, Greek ruler of Egypt around 250 BCE. Subsequently, Greek 
translations of other portions of the Jewish scriptures came to be 
added to the corpus, and the term Septuagint was applied to the entire 
collection. Such collections served as the "*scriptures" for Greek 
speaking Jews and Christians. 

Seveners or Ismailis. One of the more influential *Shiite groups, 
emphasizing secrecy and certain *gnostical ideas. Split off from the 
main *Shiite stream (see *twelvers) at the 7th generation of 
recognized successive leaders, in 765 CE. See also *Awalis, *Druzes. 

shabbat (Heb., "rest"). The *Sabbath. 

Shabbatai Zvi. See *Sabbatianism. 

Shaha^da (Arabic, "witnessing"). The formal content of the shahada(h) 
witness is the *Kalima(h): "There is no god but *God (*Allah), and 
Muhammad is the messenger (*rasul) of *God," which serves as a kind of 
minimal *creed for Muslims and is one of the *pillars of Islam (*din). 
The Arabic form is: <a>La^ ila^ha illa^ Alla^h, Muhammad rasu^l 
Alla^h</>. 

Shammai. See *Hillel. 

Shari^`a(h) (Arabic, "way to the water"). Sharia is the "way" of Islam 
(see *fiqh; compare *halaka) in accord with the *Quran and *Sunna 
(*hadith), *ijma and *qiyas. It is the comprehensive path of duty for 
Muslims, including law, ritual, and life in general. 

Shavuot/Shabuot (*Pentecost; Heb., "weeks"). Observed 50 days from the 
day the first sheaf of grain was offered to the *priests; also known 
as Festival of First Fruits. See *calendar. 


shaykh (Arabic). Word meaning an old man with grey hairs, a term that 
came to mean a respected leader and in Islam a religious teacher or 
person learned in *religion or respected for piety. 

Shekinah. Jewish term for the divine presence; the Holy Spirit. In 
*Kabalism it sometimes took on the aspect of the feminine element in 
*deity. 

Shema (Heb., "hear"). Title of the fundamental, monotheistic statement 
of Judaism, found in Deut. 6:4 ("Hear, O Israel, the LORD is our *God, 
the LORD is One"; <h>shema Yisrael YHWH elohenu YHWH ehad</>). This 
statement avers the unity of *God, and is recited daily in the 
*liturgy (along with Deut. 6:5-9, 11.13-21; Num. 15.37-41 and other 
passages), and customarily before sleep at night. This proclamation 
also climaxes special *liturgies (like *Yom Kippur), and is central to 
the confession before death and the ritual of martyrdom. The Shema is 
inscribed on the *mezuzah and the *tefillin. In public services, it is 
recited in unison. 

Shemini Atzeret (the Eighth Day of Assembly). An eight-day festival 
that immediately follows the seven-day festival of *Sukkot 
(Tabernacles). See also *calendar. 

shemoneh esreh (Heb., "eighteen"). The main section of Jewish *prayers 
recited in a standing position (see *amida) and containing 19 (yes!) 
"benedictions": praise to (1) *God of the fathers/*patriarchs, (2) 
*God's power and (3) holiness; prayers for (4) knowledge, (5) 
repentance, (6) forgiveness, (7) redemption, (8) healing sick persons, 
(9) agricultural prosperity, (10) ingathering the *diaspora, (11) 
righteous *judgment, (12) punishment of wicked and *heretics (*birkat 
haminim, (13) reward of pious, (14) rebuilding *Jerusalem, (15) 
restoration of royal house of *David, (16) acceptance of prayers, (17) 
thanks to *God, (18) restoration of *Temple worship, and (19) peace. 

sheol (Heb.). Place of departed dead in (some) ancient *Israel 
thought, without reference to punishments and rewards. See also *hell, 
*heaven. 

Shi^`a (Arabic, "party," of *`Ali). The Shi^`ites believe that 
Muhammad designated his son-in-law, `Ali, to succeed him as leader of 
the *umma of Islam; members of the Shiite communities (which often 
vary from each other on important issues) number about 10 to 15 
percent of the total Muslim community today. See also *Sunna, from 
which Shiite Islam often differs radically in a variety of ways (e.g. 
interpretation of *Quran, *eschatology, jurisprudence, worship). 

shirk (Arabic). In Islam, "association" of something with *God, thus 
"idolatry," the one unforgiveable sin according to the *Quran. 

shiva (Heb., "seven"). Seven days of mourning after the burial of a 
close relative (as in, "to sit shiva"). See also *abelut, *shloshim. 

shloshim (Heb., "thirty"). An intermediate stage of 30 days of less 
severe mourning, including *shiva. 

shofar. In Jewish worship, Ram's horn sounded at *Rosh Hashanah 
morning worship and at the conclusion of *Yom Kippur, as well as other 
times in that period during the fall. 


Shulhan Aruch (Heb., "prepared table"). A code of Jewish law 
attributed to Joseph Karo in 1565 CE, which became authoritative for 
*classical Judaism. 

siddur (from Heb., to order). Jewish *prayer book used for all days 
except special holidays (see *seder). See also *liturgy. 

Simhat Torah (Heb., "rejoicing with the Torah"). A festival which 
celebrates the conclusion of the annual reading cycle of the *Torah. 
See *calendar. 

simony. The sin of attempting to purchase spiritual gifts, named after 
Simon the magician in the *NT story in Acts 8. 

sin. Transgression or offense against *God's laws or wishes; more 
generally in Christian *belief, a continuing state of estrangement 
from *God. See also *original sin, *shirk. 

sira (Arabic). The life story of *Muhammad in Islam. 

social *gospel. Name given to the early 20th century *protestant 
Christian movement or perspective that placed its emphasis on the 
application to modern society of the principles of the *gospel. See 
also *liberal, *modernist. 

sola fidei, sola scriptura. Famous principles of the *Lutheran 
*reformation emphasizing "*faith alone" as the way to *God, and 
"*scripture alone" as the source of *authority and guidance. 

sopher or sofer (pl. <h>sopherim</>; Heb., "scribe"). Used as a 
general designation for scholars and copyists in both *talmudic and 
later literature; a "scholastic," a learned researcher whose vocation 
was the study and teaching of the *tradition. In early times the 
sopher was the scholar. By the 1st century he was no longer a real 
scholar but a functionary and teacher of children. 

stigmata (Greek, "puncture marks"). Used technically in some Christian 
groups and *traditions to refer to the *miraculous appearance on a 
living believer of wounds like those attributed to *Jesus (especially 
nail imprints in the hands).  

stoicism. An ancient Greek philosophical position contemporary with 
early *Platonism and *Aristotleianism that emphasized the close 
relationship between human activity and nature, governed by reason and 
law. Influenced early Judaism and early Christianity significantly 
(e.g. *Philo, *Paul). 

subjectivism. A modern position that emphasizes the personal nature of 
*truth. See also *existentialism. 

S.u^fi^ (from Arabic for "wool"?). Sufi is a general term for a Muslim 
mystic and/or ascetic. Sufism refers to the mystical path of Islam in 
general (not to a specific sect or *denomination). 

Sukkot (Tabernacles) (Heb., "booths, tabernacles"). Seven-day Jewish 
fall festival beginning on Tishri 15 commemorating the sukkot where 
Israel lived in the wilderness after the *Exodus; also known as <h>hag 
haasiph</>, the Festival of Ingathering (of the harvest). See also 
*calendar. 


Sunna(h) (Arabic). The "custom" of the *prophet Muhammad, that is, his 
words, habits, acts, and gestures as remembered by the Muslims and 
preserved in the literary form of the *hadith reports. The Sunna is 
second in *authority only to the *Quran for Muslims. 

Sunni^s. The majority of Muslims, who are viewed as connected to the 
authoritative *Sunna (<a>Ahl al-Sunna wa 'l-Jama^`a</> = people of the 
*Sunna and the broad-based community) and believe that any good Muslim 
can be leader; they prefer to reach agreements by means of consensus 
and do not recognize special sacred wisdom in their leaders as 
*Shiites do. 

su^ra (Arabic). In Islam, a sura(h) is a section ("chapter") of the 
*Quran, of which there are 114 in all. Suras are subdivided into 
<a>a^ya^t</> or "verses." 

synagogue (Greek for "gathering"). The central insitution of Jewish 
communal worship and study since antiquity (see also *bet midrash), 
and by extension, a term used for the place of gathering. The 
structure of such buildings has changed, though in all cases the ark 
containing the *Torah scrolls faces the ancient *Temple site in 
Jerusalem. 

syncretism (Greek for "draw together, combine"). Synthesis of 
variegated religious *beliefs derived from more than one *religion or 
cultrual/religious *tradition. See also *eclectic, *assimilation. 

synod (Greek, "gathering"). Technical term used especially in 
Christianity to designate formal convocations (meetings) relating to 
*church governance. See *Presbyterianism. 

synoptic *gospels. Name given to the first three Christian *NT 
*gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke), which view the story of *Jesus from 
the same general perspective. 

Tabernacles, Festival/Feast of. See *Sukkot. 

tafsi^r (Arabic, "explanation, commentary"). In Islam, tafsir refers 
to interpretation (especially of the *Quran), of which there are 
various types (e.g. grammatical, historical, allegorical, 
*traditional). 

tallit. A large, four-cornered shawl with fringes and special knots at 
the extremities, worn during Jewish morning *prayers. The fringes, 
according to the *Bible (Numbers 15.38-39), remind the worshiper of 
*God's *commandments. It is *traditional for the male to be buried in 
his tallit, but without its fringes. 

Talmud (Heb., "study" or "learning"). *Rabbinic Judaism produced two 
Talmuds: the one known as "Babylonian" is the most famous in the 
western world, and was completed around the fifth centuty CE; the 
other, known as the "Palestinian" or "Jerusalem" Talmud, was edited 
perhaps in the early fourth century CE. Both have as their common core 
the *Mishnah collection of the *tannaim, to which are added commentary 
and discussion (*gemara) by the *amoraim (teachers) of the respective 
locales. Gemara thus has also become a colloquial, generic term for 
the Talmud and its study. 


TaNaK (Tanakh). A relatively modern acronym for the Jewish *Bible, 
made up of the names of the three parts *Torah (*Pentateuch or Law), 
*Nevi'im (*Prophets), and *Ketuvim (Writings) -- thus TNK pronounced 
TaNaK. 

tanna (Heb., "repeater, reciter"; adj. tannaitic, pl. tannaim). A 
Jewish *sage from the period of Hillel (around the turn of the era) to 
the compilation of the Mishnah (200 CE), distinguished from later 
*amoraim. Tannaim were primarily scholars and teachers. The *Mishnah, 
*Tosefta, and halakic *Midrashim were among their literary 
achievements. 

taqli^d (Arabic). In Muslim jurisprudence, taqlid denotes uncritical 
adoption and imitation of *traditional legal decisions. Criticized by 
reform-minded legal thinkers as blind imitation -- the opposite of 
*ijtihad. 

Targum (Heb., "translation, interpretation"). Generally used to 
designate Aramaic translations of the Jewish *scriptures. See also 
*Septuagint (in a sense, Greek Targums). 

T.ari^qa (Arabic). The Islamic *Sufi special "way" of discipline and 
mystical insight in contrast to the *sharia, the ordinary religious 
law; tariqa can also refer to a specific Sufi organization or method 
of meditation. 

tawh.i^d (Arabic). Tawhid (or tauhid) means asserting and maintaining 
the divine unity, Islam's central doctrine. 

ta`zi^ya (Arabic, "consolation"). Specifically, in Islam taziya refers 
to a Shiite passion play commemorating the tragic death of the third 
Imam, Husayn (son of *`Ali), at Karbala, in 680 CE. 

tefillin. Usually translated as "phylacteries." Box-like appurtenances 
that accompany *prayer, worn by Jewish adult males at the weekday 
morning services. The boxes have leather thongs attached and contain 
*scriptural excerpts. One box (with four sections) is placed on the 
head, the other (with one section) is placed (customarily) on the left 
arm, near the heart. The *biblical passages emphasize the unity of 
*God and the duty to love *God and be mindful of him with "all one's 
heart and mind" (e.g. Exod. 13.1-10, 11-16; Deut. 6.4-9; 11.13-21). 
See also *Shema. 

temple. In the ancient world, temples were the centers of outward 
religious life, places at which public religious observances were 
normally conducted by the *priestly professionals. In *traditional 
Judaism, the only legitimate Temple was the one in *Jerusalem, built 
first by king Solomon around 950 BCE, destroyed by Babylonian king 
Nebuchadnezzar around 587/6 BCE, and rebuilt about 70 years later. It 
was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE. The site of the ancient Jewish 
Temple is now occupied, in part, by the golden domed "Dome of the 
Rock" Mosque. In recent times, "temple" has come to be used 
synonymously with *synagogue in some Jewish usage. 


testament. Term for an agreement between two (or more) parties, such 
as a "last will and testament." In Jewish *tradition, the *covenant 
concept played an important role, and was translated as "testament," 
especially in Christian references to the *scriptures of the "old 
covenant" (*OT) and the "new" (*NT). 

testimony. A general term for "witness," used especially in 
*evangelical *protestant Christian circles for personal accounts of 
religious experience. 

tetragrammaton (Greek, "four lettered [name]"). See *YHWH. 

theism. The position that affirms the existence of *deity. See also 
*atheism, *agnosticism. 

theocracy. From Greek, "divine rule"; the idea that *God should be the 
ultimate ruler, over or instead of human rulers. See *zealots. 

theology. From Greek, "study of *deity"; a general term for 
discussions and investigations of things pertaining to *God(s), and by 
extension, to religious matters. One who engages formally in 
theological studies is called a "theologian."  

thirteen principles. Statement of *classical Jewish outlook (see 
*belief) by *Maimonides. See handout for details. 

tila^wa (Arabic). In Islam, tilawa is ritual recitation of the *Quran. 

tithe. Literally, a tenth part, usually with reference to prescribed 
or voluntary contributions to one's *religious community. "Tithing" is 
often used to refer in general to systematic giving, without specific 
reference to the exact percentage. See also *zakat. 

tongues. In Christian *charismatic circles, ecstatic utterance while 
in a state of religious excitation; sometimes regarded as a special 
spiritual language (see *NT Paul's 1 Corinthians 14.9) or ability to 
speak in different languages (see *NT Acts 2.1-15). 

Torah, torah (Heb., "teaching, instruction"). In general, torah refers 
to study of the whole gamut of Jewish *tradition or to some aspect 
thereof. In its special sense, "the Torah" refers to the "five books 
of Moses" in the Hebrew *scriptures (see *Pentateuch). In the *Quran, 
"Torah" is the main term by which Jewish *scripture is identified. 

Tosefta (pl. Tosafot) (Heb., "supplement"). *Tannaitic supplements to 
the *Mishnah. Called <h>beraita</> (extraneous material) in the 
*Talmud. 

tradition(al). Something perceived to have been handed down (or passed 
along) from the past, often considered *authoritative. See also 
*mainstream, *classical, *orthodox. 

transubstantiation. In Roman *Catholic Christian *dogma, the change, 
during the *eucharist, of the substance of bread and wine into the 
substance of Christ's body and blood -- the "accidents" (taste, color, 
shape) of the elements are believed to remain the same, but the 
substance or *essence (in an *Aristotleian sense) changes into the 
holy elements of the *sacrifice. This interpretation was largely 
rejected by *Protestant reformers. 


trinity. In *classical Christian *dogma, *God the Father, Christ the 
Son, and the Holy Spirit exist in perfect unity, as three "persons" in 
one *God. The nature of this union was much debated in classical 
Christianity, and Western and Eastern expressions differ. See also 
*monarchian, *unitarian. 

truth. That which conforms to reality. For *classical Judaism, 
Christianity and Islam, ultimate truth is defined and determined in 
relation to the ultimate reality, *God. "The Truth" is attested as a 
way of referring to the *deity in Islam (the execution of Hallaj is a 
memorable example), and to *Jesus in Christianity (Gospel of John).  

twelvers. The main surviving sub-group of *Shiite Islam, named for its 
distinctive allegience to the *imam they count as the legitimate 12th 
in the succession. See also *seveners, *Zaidis.   

typology. A form of (usually *biblical) interpretation wherein a 
person, event, or institution is viewed as foreshadowing a later one. 
For example, for Christian interpreters, Abraham's intended *sacrifice 
of Isaac (Genesis 22) is seen as a "type" of the *sacrificial death of 
Christ. 

tzaddik. See *zaddik. 

tzedakah; see *zedakah.

`ulama^' (Arabic). The Ulama is the collective name for the top class 
of religious officials in Islam -- scholars "learned" in Islamic law 
(see *sharia, *fiqh). 

`Umar (or Omar). Second successor (*caliph) to Muhammad (and a father-
in-law). Sometimes called the "St. Paul" of Islam because of his 
success in spreading the message (including militarily). 

Umma(h) (Arabic). The Muslim "community" or ideal state worldwide. 

Umayyad. The first major Muslim dynasty, established in Damascus by 
Mu`a^wiya the nephew of *Uthman (of the *Quraysh clan from *Mecca) 
after fierce rivalry with *`Ali, the last of the four "rightly guided 
*caliphs." The events leading to the Umayyad takeover were influential 
in the establishment of *Shiite Islam and also the *Kharijite 
movement. After about a century (660-750 CE), the Umayyad dynasty was 
defeated and replaced by the *Abbasids in Baghdad, but a branch of the 
Umayyads survived and prospered for centuries in Spain. 

`umra (Arabic). A "lesser *pilgrimage," or religious visit to *Mecca 
at a time other than the appointed month for *hajj (see also 
*calendar, *pillars). 

unitarianism. A movement with roots in the *Radical Reformation of 
early 16th century *protestant Christianity which emphasized the 
oneness of *deity (*monotheism, see also *monarchianism) by rejecting 
the *traditional *doctrine of *trinity and pursuing a *rationalist 
approach to *religion. It became a distinct *denomination in early 
19th century England. In the 1960s, American Unitarianism dissocated 
itself from Christianity. 


universalism. The idea among some Christians that everyone will 
ultimately attain to the *heavenly reward (salvation). 

unleavened (Greek <g>azyma</>). See *leaven. 

usury. Old term for the principle of monetary interest, which is 
prohibited or limited under certain conditions in the *scriptures of 
Judaism, Christianity and Islam. 

`Uthma^n (or Othman). `Uthman was the third successor (*caliph) to 
Muhammad, under whom an authorized collection of *Quran materials was 
established. 

veneration. A general term for religious devotion to a particular 
object or person. See *saint, *mawlid, *wali, *zaddik, *icon, *relic. 

verbal inspiration. An idea especially important for Christian 
*protestant *fundamentalism/*evangelicals, holding that *God 
established the *Bible as "inspired" (usually interpreted to mean 
without error) in its literal meaning (see *literalism, *allegory). 

vicar of Christ. Term applied especially to the *pope, as the prime 
"representative" of *Jesus *Christ in Roman *Catholic Christianity. 

virgin Mary (Heb., Miriam, Greek Maria), virgin birth. The mother of 
*Jesus/Joshua is believed in *classical Christian thought to have 
conceived and given birth to Jesus without losing her virginity (thus 
the "perpetual virginity" of Mary). The ideal of virginity became 
important for both women and men as *classical Christianity developed 
(see *celibacy, *monasticism), but in *protestant Christianity (in 
reaction to Roman *Catholicism), there has tended to be much less 
emphasis on Mary or on virginity. 


visionary. A general term for one who claims to (or is considered to) 
be able to see into the future, and/or is committed to changing the 
future in accord with particular ideals. 

vulgate (Latin, "common, popular"). The official Roman *Catholic Latin 
version of the *Bible, prepared or edited by Jerome (Hieronymus) 
around the year 400. See also *Septuagint. 

Wahha^bis. Adherents of the puritanical Muslim reform movement that 
arose in Arabia in the eighteenth century under Muhammad ibn `Abd al-
Wahha^b (1703-1787) are called Wahhabis. 

wah.y (Arabic). In Islam, wahy refers to "revelation" of the *Quran to 
Muhammad by a kind of verbal/mental process of inspiration and 
communication. 

wali^ (Arabic). "Friend," "client," "kinsman," "patron"; in English 
wali most often means Muslim "*saint" or "holy person." 

yarmulke. See *kiphah. 

yawm al-di^n (Arabic, "day of *judgment"). A key *eschatological idea 
in Islam, paralleling the same concept in Judaism and Christianity. 

yeshivah (pl. yeshivot). A Jewish *rabbinic academy of higher 
learning. See also *beit midrash. 

yetzer. A technical Heb. term for human "inclination" to do good 
(yetzer ha-tov) or to do evil (yetzer ha-ra). 


YHWH (Yahweh). The sacred name of *God in Jewish *scriptures and 
*tradition; also known as the *tetragrammaton. Since Hebrew was 
written without vowels in ancient times, the four consonants YHWH 
contain no clue to their original pronunciation. They are generally 
rendered "Yahweh" in contemporary scholarship. In *traditional 
Judaism, the name is not pronounced, but <h>Adonai</> ("Lord") or 
something similar is substituted. In most English versions of the 
*Bible the tetragrammaton is represented by "LORD" (or less 
frequently, "Jehovah").          

Yiddish (from German "Juedisch" or Jewish). The vernacular of 
*Ashkenazic Jews; it is a combination of several languages, especially 
Hebrew and German, written in Hebrew script. 

yigdol/yigdal (from Heb., to be great; thence "Great is he"). A 
*hymn/chant/poem from 11th century or earlier, frequently found at the 
beginning or end of the Jewish *prayer book (*siddur). Also found as 
an adopted Christian hymn.  

Yom Kippur (Heb., "Day of Atonement"). Annual day of *fasting and 
atonement, occurring in the fall on Tishri 10 (just after *Rosh 
Hashanah); the most solemn and important occasion of the Jewish 
religious year. See also *calendar. 

zadakat. See *sadakat. Islamic voluntary almsgiving. 

zaddik (Heb., "righteous one"). A general term for a righteous person 
in Jewish *tradition. More specifically, the spiritual leader of the 
modern *Hasidim, popularly known as *rebbe. See also *saint. 

zaidis. A sub-group of Islamic *Shiites, with positions relatively 
close to those of the *Sunnis, by comparison to the *seveners or the 
*twelvers. 

zaka^t (Arabic). Zakat is legal almsgiving required as one of the five 
*pillars of Islam (*din). See also *sadakat. 

zealot (from Greek, to be enthusiastic). A general term for one who 
exhibits great enthusiasm and dedication to a cause. Specifically, a 
member of an *early Jewish group or perspective that advocated Jewish 
independance (see *theocracy) from Rome. See also *assassins. 

zedakah (Heb., "righteousness"; see *tzedakah). Term in Judaism 
usually applied to deeds of charity and philanthropy. 

Zion, Zionism. (Mount) Zion is an ancient Hebrew designation for 
Jerusalem, but already in *biblical times it began to symbolize the 
national homeland (see e.g. Psalm 137.1-6). In this latter sense it 
served as a focus for Jewish national-religious hopes of renewal over 
the centuries. Ancient hopes and attachments to Zion gave rise to 
Zionist longings and movements since antiquity, culminating in the 
modern national liberation movement of that name. The Zionist cause 
helped the Jews return to *Palestine in this century and found the 
state of *Israel in 1948. The goal of Zionism is the political and 
spititual renewal of the Jewish people in its ancestral homeland. See 
also *Herzl. 


zizit (Heb., "fringes"). See *tallit. 

Zohar. "Book of Splendor"; the chief literary work of the *kabalists. 
The author of the main part of the Zohar was Moses de Leon (12th 
century) in Spain, but it is *pseudepigraphically ascribed to the 
*Palestinian *tanna Simeon bar Yohai (2nd century CE), sometimes 
called RaShBaY (Rabbi Shimeon bar Yohai). 

z.ulm (Arabic). Zulm is the most basic *Quranic term for sin (wrong-
doing, wrong-dealing). 

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