"Ezra"
Materials in Judaism and Christianity*
by ROBERT A. KRAFT,
Originally appeared in Aufstieg und Niedergang der Roemischen Welt:
Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der Neueren Forschung (ed H. Temporini
and
[[Further
editing is needed on format and possible misprints (12de05)]]
*This summary article is partly based on work carried out by the author and the following advanced graduate students in seminars on various aspects of the subject: JON DECHOW, ROBERT HOTCHKISS and HAROLD REMUS (on the Justin quotation); KENNETH COHEN, MARTHA HIMMELFARB, ROSS KRAEMER, RUTH SANDBERG and VICI SCHWARTZ (on Ezra Apocalypses and similar material).
Contents
I Biblical Traditions about Ezra............................................... 120
II. Extra-Biblical Traditions about Ezra ……………………….124
III. Literature Associated with Ezra …………………………... 130
IV. Synthesis and Suggestions ……………………………... 134
Appendix: Editions of Ancient Sources, Key to Abbreviations
. .135
The Hebrew name
"Ezra" (Esdras, Esdram; etymological meaning, "[God will]
help") has come to be associated with various writings of Jewish and
Christian antiquity, including historical narratives, prophetic exhortations,
and various apocalyptic journeys and discourses. The earliest of these works has been
preserved in Hebrew (-Aramaic) by the Jewish tradition in its scriptural canon
(biblical book(s) of Ezra-Nehemiah) and also in two more or less related Greek
forms preserved by Christians but with no obvious evidence of
characteristically Christian reworking (the "septuagintal" or “old
Greek” books of Ezra-Nehemiah ["Esdras 2"] and of "l
Esdras"). All of the other
extensive Ezra materials of which we are aware have been preserved by
Christians and have frequently been described as at least reflecting Christian
editorial interests if not as having been composed by and for Christians. Several of the writings are now extant only
in relatively late versions (e.g. Latin, Armenian) of what may have been
originally Greek, or even Semitic, compositions.
In Judaism and Christianity
it is not at all unusual to find various writings attributed to or associated
with famous names from Jewish religious history - e.g. Adam and Eve, Enoch,
Abraham, Job, Moses, Isaiah, Jeremiah [[120]] and Baruch.\1/ In one sense, the Ezra material falls into
the same category, but in another it presents some unique problems. The exact identity of "Ezra" in
relation to other persons and events from Jewish history apparently remained
problematic for many ancient and medieval persons interested in these
materials. Why did the name
"Ezra" become attached to various writings? Who did the authors, editors and transmitters
think this "Ezra" was, and how did they view his function as a
revered figure of antiquity? To what
extent are the biblical accounts of Ezra responsible for generating other Ezra
materials, and to what extent might they also be products of an older, more
widely ranging perception of a person or persons called "Ezra" in
Jewish traditions? The survey which follows
will not necessarily answer such questions with equal precision, but will
attempt to present in broad outline some of
the more pertinent data.
\1/ See for example, M. R. JAMES, Lost Apocrypha of the Old Testament (London: SPCK, 1920): A. M. DENIS, Introduction au Pseudepigraphes Grecs
d'ancien Testament (Leiden: Brill, 1970); J. H. CHARLESWORTH. The
Pseudepigrapha and Modern Research, Septuagint and Cognate Studies 7 (Missoula,
Mont.: Scholars Press, 1976).
1. Biblical Traditions about
Ezra
The most famous Ezra of Jewish biblical tradition
emerges abruptly near the end of the book that bears his name:
"Now after these things
in the reign of Artaxerxes king of Persia Ezra the son of Seraiah son of
Azariah son of Hilkiah son of Shallum... son of Phineas son of Eleazar son of
Aaron the chief priest - this Ezra went up from
In
Ezra 7 he is called "Ezra the priest, the scribe" (7.11,12,21;
"high priest and reader" in 1 Esdras 9.49) while in chapter 10 he is
simply "Ezra" or "Ezra the priest" (10.10,16). Ezra 7.27
through 9.15 purports to be first person testimony from "Ezra"
himself while Ezra 7.1-26 and 10.lff. provide third person narrative
framework. "Ezra" appears
again in the narrative of Nehemiah 8.1-13 where he is primarily "the
scribe" (8.1,4,13; see also 12.36) but also "the priest" (8.2)
or "the priest and scribe" (8.9; see also 12.26). Whereas Ezra 7.7 is
dated to the seventh year of Artaxerxes, Nehemiah's narrative apparently is set
between the 20th and the 32nd years of Artaxerxes (Neh. 2.1, 13.6). The precise
functions of this Ezra will be noted below, in comparison to other similar
figures.
Interestingly, this
"biblical Ezra" is neglected in Ben Sira's survey of famous
Israelites, although the three other names most often associated [[121]] with leading Israel out of Babylonian exile do appear - Zerubbabel, Jeshua
and Nehemiah (Sirach 49.11-13, but Sirach's emphasis is on rebuilding temple
and city, not on return as such). Other
Jewish traditions, and especially Rabbinic sources, connect Ezra closely with
the restoration of Moses' law after the exile (especially laws against exogamy)
and the development of "the scribes" as an institution for study of
Torah. Sometimes Rabbinic sources
identify Ezra with Malachi (as Jerome also notes in his Commentary on Malachi),\2/ and Muhammad had the impression that
some Jews in the 7th century c.e. called Ezra "God's Son" (Qur'an 9.30).\3/
\2/
For a convenient survey of Rabbinic and other Jewish traditions relating to Ezra, see L. GINZBERG, The Legends of the Jews 4 (Philadelphia:
Jewish Publication Society, 1913) 354-359 and the corresponding notes in vol. 6
(1928).
\3/
Some Muslim commentators identify the 100 year "sleeper" (Abimelech ?
see Paraleipomena Jeremiou 5) in Qur'an 2.269 with Ezra (others with Elijah).
The name "Ezra"
also appears cryptically in three other passages in the Hebrew book of
Nehemiah. In 12.1f., an Ezra is included
among the chief priests who accompanied Zerubbabel and Jeshua in their return
from exile. Then in 12.12f., this same
Ezra is listed as the head of a priestly family whose son, Meshullam, flourished
in the days of Joiakim - "these were in the days of Joiakim, son of Jeshua,
son of Jozadak, and in the days of Nehemiah the governor and of Ezra the priest
and scribe" (12.26). An Ezra also is included near the front of Nehemiah's
joyful procession on the wall of
Two major areas of
difficulty arise in attempting to clarify the identity and functions of
"Ezra" as that name is used in the canonical and deuterocannonical
books of Ezra-Nehemiah and 1 Esdras:
(1) How are the various retum-narratives related to the supposed
sequence of political events and rulers under
(2) How does "Ezra" relate to other persons who are said
to have led retums from
The names of four different Persian rulers appear in
the accounts, if we ignore for the moment the introduction of "Darius the
Mede" by the Daniel tradition as a transition ruler between Babylonian and
Persian world-empires. Possibly the
biblical chronicler and the author/editor of 1 Esdras intended to identify two
different rulers by the name Artaxerxes.
In any event, a certain amount of suggestive symmetry appears in the
accounts when viewed from this perspective, as chart 1 attempts to show.
[[122]] Chart 1
|
Cyrus
(Ezra 1, 1 Esd. 2.1-15, 5.47-73 |
Artaxerxes
no.1 (Ezra 4.6-34, 1 Esd. 2.16-30) |
Darius
(Ezra 5.1ff., 1 Esd. 3.1-5.46, 6.1ff.) |
Artaxerxes
no.2 (Ezra 7.1ff., 1 Esd. 8.1ff.) |
Artaxerxes
no.3 (Neh. 2ff.) |
|
decree
to rebuild temple (1.1f., 6.3) |
|
decree/permit
to rebuild (6.6ff., 1 Esd. 4.43-57) |
decree/permit
to return with aid (7.13ff.) |
permit
to rebuild city walls (2.8) |
|
|
|
|
|
permit
to purify temple (13.6ff.) |
|
provision
of/for funds (1.4; 3.7; 6.4b) |
|
provision
of/for funds (6.8) |
provision
of/for funds (7.15ff.) |
|
|
temple furnishings (1.7ff., 5.14, 6.5) |
|
|
temple furnishings (8.25ff.) |
return of furnishings (13.9) |
|
offerings (? 1.4b) |
|
offerings (6.9) |
offerings (7.17) |
|
|
celebration
of |
|
celebration
of temple |
celebration
of |
celebration
of |
|
|
|
|
|
new year (8.1ff.) |
|
|
|
dedication (6.16) |
|
|
|
sukkot
(3.1ff.) |
|
passover (6.19) |
passover
(? 8.31ff.) |
sukkot
(8.17) |
|
leader
designated |
|
leader
permitted (1 Esd. 6.27) |
leader
permitted |
leader
permitted |
|
Sheshbazzer (1.8, 11; 5.14, 16) |
|
|
Ezra (7.13) |
Nehemiah (2.8) |
|
or assumed |
|
or assumed |
|
|
|
Zerubbabel-Jeshua (2.2; 3.2, 8; 4.3) |
|
Zerubbabel-Jeshua
(5.2; contrast 6.14) |
|
|
|
opposition
(4.1-5) |
letter
of opposition (4.7-16) |
letter
of opposition (5.3-17) |
|
opposition
(2.10, 19; 4.1) |
|
|
reply
supporting opposition (4.17-24) |
reply
prohibiting opposition (6.1-15) |
opposition
prohibited (7.26) |
|
I
[[123]] Chart 2
|
Sheshbazzar
(or Sanabassar) |
Zerubbabal\4/
(and Jeshua the priest) |
Ezra |
Nehemiah\4/ |
|
prince
of |
bodyguard
of King and adopted kinsman (1 Esd. 3.4; 4.13, 42) |
priest/scribe |
cupbearer
of King (Neh. 1.ll) |
|
|
Davidic
descent (1 Esd. 5.5) |
|
|
|
governor
(5.14) |
governor
(1 Esd. 6.27, 29) |
|
governor
(Neh. 5.14; 10.1) |
|
returns
with temple furnishings (1.11) |
|
returns
with aid and temple furnishings (8.25ff.) |
retruns
to rebuild walls (2.8) and return furnishings (13.9) |
|
|
rebuilds
altar (3.3f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
fasting
(8.21) passover
(? 8.35) |
purifies
cultic worship (Neh. 13.6ff., 11ff., 31f.) |
|
|
sukkot
(3.4ff.) |
new
year and sukkot (Neh. 8.1ff.) |
enforces
sabbath (Neh. 13.15ff.) |
|
|
|
bans
exogamy (10.1ff.) |
bans
exogamy (Neh.13.23ff.) |
|
begins
temple foundations (5.16) |
begins
temple foundations (3.10; 5.2) |
|
|
|
|
|
memoirs
(7.27-9.15) |
memoirs
(Neh. Passim) |
|
|
|
prayers
(9.6ff., Neh. 9.6ff.) |
prayers
(Neh. 1.4ff., etc.) |
\4/ Ginzberg, Legends
4, 352 (and notes in vol. 6, 437f.) reports a Rabbinic tradition (Sanhedrin
38a, top) equating Zerubbabel and Nehemiah. We might also expect someone to
have identified Jeshua with Ezra.
[[124]]
Because the different Jewish leaders sometimes appear
in more than one of the above columns, it is also instructive to compare the
respective traditions associated with each of them (chart 2).
It is clear that the respective editors of
Ezra-Nehemiah and of 1 Esdras are not always in complete agreement and have not
presented entirely coherent accounts by modern standards. Even without attempting any detailed analysis
of this data (presumably the better commentaries have done so), it is obvious
that there has been interpenetration and crossfertilization of traditions in
the preserved canonical and deutero-canonical accounts. Probably the references to Ezra in the lists
of Neh. 12.26 and 36 have been added for harmonistic purposes. The crediting of both Sheshbazzer and
Zerubbabel-Jeshua for beginning to rebuild the temple is an obvious problem as
is Artaxerxes' support of the opponents in a period between Cyrus and
Darius. The exact range of sources
available to each editor is not known, nor the exact extent of dependence of
one on the otber (presumably 1 Esdras translates a Semitic source very similar
to EzraNehemiah). How much other
material of equal antiquity concerning these persons and events may have
survived in extra-canonical sources remains to be determined. Samples of similar confusions,
harmonizations, etc. in other sources will be noted below. The above charts are intended simply as a
partial basis for attempting to understand the many faces of Ezra's image in
other Jewish and Christian literature.
II.
Extra-Biblical Traditions about Ezra
A key factor in the general understanding and use of
"return from exile" traditions in Judaism and Christianity was the
belief that the defeat of Babylon and return to Jerusalem took place some
seventy years after the destruction of the city, in fulfilment of Jeremiah's
prophecy (see Jer. 25.11-12, 29.10 [Old Greek 36.10]). For the author/editor of
Daniel, "Darius the Mede"\5/ was the agent of deliverance (Dan. 9.2);
for the Chronicler, it was Cyrus (Ezra 1.1 - Esdras 2.1 - 2 Chron. 36.22; see
also Isa. 44.24-45.7!). For many other persons interested in the return, the
exact name of the Persian ruler was apparently less important than the fact of
restoration and the person of the Jewish leader in that restoration. The conclusion of the 70 year period was the
focus of interest, not details of ancient political history. Sometimes other factors also were involved,
as when Hippolytus asks regarding Dan. 9.25 "of what anointed one
("Christ") does it speak other than Jesus son of Josedek who at that
time returned
\5/ For a survey of the historical
problem raised by Daniel's claim, see H. H. ROWLEY, Darius the Mede and the
Four World Empires in the Book of Daniel: a Historical Study of Contemporary
Theories (Cardiff: University of Wales, 1935).
[[125]] with the people and in the 70th year, when he had
rebuilt the holy place, offered a sacrifice in accord with the law.... For
after the return of the people from Babylon who were led by Jesus son of
Josedek and Ezra the scribe and Zerubbabel son of Salathiel from the tribe of
Judah there were 434 years [= the "62 weeks" of Dan. 9.25-26] until
the coming of Messiah/Christ.. . ." (Commentary on Daniel, 4.30-31).
Hippolytus reckons the "seven weeks" (= 49 years) of Dan. 9.25 as the
remainder of the 70 years of captivity, since for him, Daniel has this vision
in the 21st year after the destruction of the city (4.30). Elsewhere, in commenting
on the vision of Daniel 2, Hippolytus claims that the Persian empire lasted 245
years (or 230 in 4.24) and Alexander's Greek Empire 300 years (2.12). How he
squared these numbers (545 plus some years from the start of the
Among Christian authors the problem of who
"Ezra" was and when he lived often is affected by the larger question
of how to interpret the aforementioned "prophetic" passages in
Jeremiah and Daniel. Writers who
attempted to take world history seriously and relate it to what they considered
"prophetically" true came up with a variety of answers. Clement of
In the interests of accurate world
chronography, other writers place Ezra relatively later in the Persian period
and separate him from the [[126]] initial
return to
\6/
The claim that Ezra was a friend of Xerxes is rejected by Syncellus (see n. 10
below). Josephus' treatment of some of the other problems is interesting: he
has both Darius the Mede and "his relative" Cyrus conquer
\7/
Eusebius, Prep. Evang. 10.9-10 seems to
date the end of the exile to both the second year of Darius (10.9 [483d]) and
the first year of Cyrus (10.10 [488d], citing Africanus). According to Syiicellus (below, n. 10),
Africanus viewed Ezra as active under Artaxerxes.
\8/
Chronicon Paschale, ed. L. DINDORF, Corpus
Scriptorum Histories Byzantinae 9 (Bonn: Weber, 1832), 304-305. Ezra receives very brief notice by comparison
with the section on Nehemiah, who is dated ca. 452bce.
\9/
Malalas, Chronograpia 6 (ed. L. DINDORF,
CSHB 8, 1831, pp. 160f.).
\10/
Syncellus, Chronographia (ed. W. DINDORF,
CSHB 6.1, 1828, 421-480).
But other, less historically selfconscious traditions
about Ezra also were in circulation among Christians, emphasizing other alleged
functions of Ezra. In general, Ezra's
role as a scholar of the law and a dissolver of mixed marriages receives little
notice among Christians. He is
remembered most widely as the one through whom God restored scriptures (see
above, Irenaeus, Clement, Malalas, Suidas), and Tertullian suggests that those
"scriptures" even included books like Enoch (Hab. Mul. 1.3). Perhaps the
reference by Malalas and Suidas to the "books not found" was also meant
to refer to the extra-canonical writings.
Justin even claims that the Jews had excised from their scriptures a
passage in which Ezra, in the priestly cultic context of Passover, uses
language congenial to Christian ideas of salvation (Dial. 72.1). If this is a
clue that in some circles, a battle was being fought to validate Ezra as a
spokesman for a Christian "belief" oriented perspective as over
against Ezra the champion of Jewish law, it stands virtually alone. When Lactantius cites the same "Ezra"
passage more than [[127]] a century later
(Div. Inst. 4.18.22 = Epitome 48) it is
clearly used to highlight Jewish rejection of Jesus, but the Jews are not
accused of removing the passage from scripture.
Lactantius seems to be unaware of any problem regarding the source of
the "Ezra" quotation, which he includes among other "testimonies
of the prophets". A rather
ambiguous reference to Ezra's cultic-priestly function is also found in the
prayer of Apostolic Constitutions
7.37: as God accepted the sacrifice of Ezra at the return, may he accept
Gentile prayers -- Ezra 8.35f. might be in view, or some other tradition like
the Passover observation mentioned by Justin and Lactantius.
In a few sources, "Ezra" is
pictured as a "prophet". As we
have seen, Malalas used this title and Lactantius seems to consider his
"Ezra" quotation as a prophetic testimony. Clement of
\11/
M.R. JAMES published two somewhat divergent texts of this material, based on
8th century manuscripts, in: Journal of Theological Studies 4 (1902/03); see
section G-28/ P. 224 (Chusi pater Hesdrae, prophetae maioris; see
also the notes on pp. 239f.) and G-49/ p. 230 = A-45/p. 231 (Duo sumt Hesdrae, unus [+ est G] propheta filius Chusi ad quem dominus
de rubro [+ sicut ad Moysen G] locutus est, qui et legem [so A: quique memoria sua G] renovavit [+ divinas scripturas quas Nabuchodonosor
incenderat. Litterasque hebraeicas ludeis inmutasse, et fecisse eis litteras
Assirias, ut non commiscerentur
Samaritanis. In diversa manu scribuntur,
ipse dictus est iure peritus G]. Alius [+ est Hesdra filius Helia G] sacerdos
scriba [so A: scriba, sacerdos G] et
doctor [+ legis A] qui reversus est [so A: cum reliqo papulo G] de captivitate Babylonis [+ ascendit G]. Inter ambos [+ autem G] sunt anni [+ ferme G] C [so G: I in
A]). See also M. R. JAMES, Ego Salathiel
Qui Esdras, Journal of Theological Studies 18
(1916/17) 167-169.
\12/ De XII Gemmis, in the section on
"Onyx". For the Georgian and
Coptic versions see the edition by R. P. BLAKE, in: Studies and Documents,
ed. K. and
[[128]]
Finally, there is a lengthy description of Ezra as
prophet, miracleworker, sage and priestly mediator in the Coptic Jeremiah
Apocryphon 32-34.\13/ This section
interrupts the flow of the narrative about Jeremiah and contains various themes
of interest:
32. Ezra is one of 70 Hebrew youths "in the
school of the Chaldeans" when Cyrus the Persian succeeds Nebuchadnezzar
and increases the burdens on the Hebrews (compare traditions of
33. Cyrus taunts the Hebrews and receives a strong
sign that they should soon return to judaea.
34. "And it came to pass after that the 70 years
of the captivity were nearly completed.
And Ezra son of Johanan and Daniel son of Ezra and Ezekiel son of Buzi
(Ezek. 1.3), those three were prophets, and the word came to them while they
were prophesying in
(35ff. Jeremiah
leads the return as in Paraleipomena Jeremiou.
Ezra plays no further role.)
\13/ Ed. K.
H. KUHN, Le Muse/on 83 (1970) 95-135
and 291-350.
The picture of Ezra as a prophetic person is, for the
most part, affirmed also in the extra-canonical texts with which Ezra's name is
associated. The extent to which any of these texts themselves contributed to
this image of Ezra, or depended on an already extant tradition about Ezra as a
prophet and/or apocalyptic seer is difficult to determine. Probably the Apocalypse now preserved in
Latin (and other languages derivative from Greek) as chapters 3-14 of "4
Ezra" is the oldest extant example of such materials. It identifies its "prophet" (see
12.42) author as "Salathiel who is also called Ezra", and dates
itself in the 30th year after
The Greek Apocalypse
of Esdras also begins with a vague reference to "Esdras the holy
prophet and beloved of God" who received his revelation in "the 30th
year", on the 22nd day of an unnamed month while in his house. Otherwise it provides little by way of
information to add to the picture of Ezra other than some interesting parallels
to Moses when Ezra faces death near the end of the book. His death date is given as 28 October.
With the short work ("5 Ezra") now preserved
only in Latin as chapters 1-2 of 4 Ezra, serious textcritical problems are
present in the opening words. The family
of MSS represented by C and M briefly identifies the author as "Esdras son
of Chusi, in the days of Nebuchadnezzar" (see Inventiones Nominum, above), while the MSS represented by S and A
provide a long genealogy similar to that found in Ezra 7.1-5 but framed by the
words "The second book of Ezra the prophet [sic!], son of Seraiah . . .,
who was a captive in the region of the Medes in the reign of Artaxerxes King of
the Persians". Near the end of this
writing Ezra is commissioned on "Mt.
Horeb" (as Moses in Ex. 3.1) to go to
As will be noted below, several other works circulated
which claimed some connection with Ezra.
I have not yet been able to examine all of them in detail, but those
which I have examined add nothing of significance to the traditions about
"Ezra" noted above.
From this somewhat diverse array of sources mentioning
"Ezra" the following characteristics or functions of Ezra deserve
notice.
(1) leader of a
return to
(2) priest who
offers prayers and sacrifices (Ezra/l Esdras, Justin).
(3) scribe and
enthusiast for assiduous study of Torah (Neh., Epiph.).
(4) champion of
endogamous Jewish marriage (Ezra) and of
(5) restorer of
Jewish scriptures af ter destruction of temple (4 Ezra, etc.).
(6) originator
of new type of Hebrew letters (4 Ezra, Rabb. trad.; cf. Chron.
Pasch., Epiph.).
(7) "prophet"
(Ezra, Gk Apocal. Esdr., Clement,
Inv. Nom., Malalas). [[130]]
(8) recipient
of apocalyptic secrets (4 Ezra, etc. [see below]).
(9) miracle
worker (Apocr. Jer.).
(10) companion of
angels (Apocr. Jer., Gk Apocal. Ezra, 4
Ezra, 5 Ezra).
The
following variations with regard to Ezra's lineage, associates, and time of
floruit also appear:
(1) son of Chusi in
(2) son of Johanan and father of Daniel (?) in
(3) = (or son of) Salathiel, son of (or associate of)
Zorobabel son of Jechoniah (Epiphanius).
(4) = Salathiel, in
(5) in
(6) returned with Zerubbabel 70 years after the
destruction (Neh. 12. 1, Clem. Alex.,
Hippol.).
(7) = Malachi (Rabbinic tradition also known to
Jerome).
(8) son of Seriah and early contemporary of Nehemiah
under Artaxerxes (Ezra/Esd.).
(9) friend of Xerxes (Josephus, see Suidas; denied by
Syncellus).
(10) son of "Helia" (? Helkia, see Ezra 7.1),
a century later than no. 1 (MS G of Inv.
Nom.).
(11) slept for a century, from before the destruction
(Muslim tradition).
The
question remains as to whether any helpful patterns can be reconstructed from
this data to illuminate the perceptions of Ezra held by the various persons who
read and transmitted and ultimately originated the different Ezra materials.
III. Literature
Associated with Ezra
The extant
documents that focus on or are attributed to Ezra are of several different
types (for present purposes, significant sections of more inclusive writings
such as the Ezra sections of canonical Ezra-Nehemiah are also listed):
(1) Narratives
in which Ezra is a priest and interpreter of Jewish law who leads a return to
Ezra
7-10 (includes a short prayer-confession along with sorne first person
narrative)
Neh.
8-9 (or 10) (includes a long prayer)
1
Es&as 8-9 (includes material from both of the above sections).
There
is no indication in these materials that Ezra is viewed as a prophet or seer,
or as a new Moses, although some reference to his “understanding" and
"wisdom" appears (e.g. 1 Esd. 8.7; cf. Neh. 10.28). He is certainly depicted as an
intercessor for
Possibly this category of materials also
once included a more lengthy narrative in which Ezra was depicted as
celebrating a Passover with the returned exiles. The text mentioned by Justin may well be of
pre-Christian origin (there is nothing characteristically "Christian"
about its terminology, despite the persisting claims that it is a “Christian"
composition\l4/), and the the presence of a major passover celebration in the
return traditions (Ezra 6.19) strengthens the possibility that Ezra would have
been associated with a passover at some point. Indeed, since 1 Esdras opens
rather abruptly with an account of Josiah’s passover (2 Chr. 35, see 2 Kgs.
23.21), which followed the renewal of the covenant, it might be that the Ezra
traditions behind 1 Esdras once also included a covenant renewal passover under
Ezra. Interestingly, the passover of the
returned exiles in 1 Esdras 7.10ff. is not associated directly with Ezra or
with covenant renewal, although separation from the abominations of the local
people is mentioned (as also in Ezra 6.21). Furthermore, the context of Ezra's
sukkot celebration (see esp. Neh. 8.17) is
sufficiently reminiscent of Josiah's passover in 2 Kgs. 23.22 to strengthen the
suspicion that Ezra once may have been associated with a major passover
celebration instead of (or in addition to) the sukkot celebration we now find in the sources.
\14/ My students and I have done a detailed
analysis of the language of Justin's "Ezra" quotation and are
convinced that it could derive as easily from a non or pre Christian Jewish pen
as from a Christian. This evidence must
await publication in a separate article.
(la) Narratives in which Ezra is a
priestly prophet and miracle worker designated to lead the return from the
exile --
Jeremiah Apocryphon 32 and 34.
Parallelism
with Moses (and with Jesus) is fairly obvious here. Ezra is pictured as wise and a wonder worker
as well as one who offers a sacrifice and a prayer of mediation. He also is in contact with angels. The presence of this explicitly Ezra material
in an extensive work dealing with Jeremiah is interesting, especially since the
picture of Jeremiah here (e.g. as in [[132]]
Paraleipomena Jeremiou) otherwise also reflects some Ezra-types of traditions
(e.g. return to
(2) Prophecies and Apocalypses received by
Ezra in
4 Ezra 3-14 (implies Ezra's assumption to heaven at
the end)
5 Ezra (= 4 Ezra 1-2) in MSS CM
Greek Apocalypse of Ezra (Ezra dies at the end)
In
these materials, Ezra is one who proclaims or witnesses God's judgment and to
some extent serves as an intercessor (except, perhaps, in 5 Ezra). He is in the presence of angels and learns
things not normally known to humans. In
4th and 5th Ezra, he recounts various aspects of
(2 a) Prophetic messages received by Ezra
in
5 Ezra (= 4 Ezra 1-2) in MSS SA.
The presumably intentional
identification of the Ezra of 5 Ezra 1.lff. (SA) with the priestly Ezra of Ezra
7.1-5 apparently has left no other traces in this text, and is almost certainly
a secondary development.
(3) Works
in which neither of the above
identifications/settings is specified (or which have not yet been examined for those elements)\15/ --
Armenian Inquiries or Questions of "the prophet
Esdras" (only partly available; similar in tone to 4 Ezra);
Latin "Vision of the Blessed Ezra"
(similar to the Greek Apocalypse);
Various works associating Ezra with calendric
knowledge:
Greek Prognostikon of Lunar Days, from the prophet
Esdras\16/ (basically historical data linked to certain days);
Latin (etc.) Revelation of Ezra attributed variously
to "Esdras", "Esdras the chief priest", or "Esdras the
prophet"\17/ (predictions [[133]] of
what the year will be like in relation to the day of the week on which it
starts);
Ethiopic
Description by "the prophet Ezra the priest" of the best days on
which to engage in various activities;\18/
Ethiopic
(Falasha) Apocalypse (not yet examined);
Syriac Apocalypse of Ezra the Scribe, when he was in
the desert with his Disciple Karpos, concerning the Arabs\19/.
\15/ Only works that unambiguously bear the name
Ezra are included here. The work known as "6 Ezra" (4 Ezra 15-16) does
not claim to be by Ezra except indirectly, through its inclusion with 4 & 5
Ezra in the Latin tradition. Thus
"6 Ez.ra" is not discussed in this article. For bibliographical and other data on most of
the works listed below, see DENIS, Introduction, 93-96, and CHARLESWORTH, Pseudepigrapha
(under "Ezra").
\16/ See F. NAu, De deux opuscules astrologiques
attribue/s au prophe\te Esdras et d'un calendrier lunaire de I'ancien
testament attribue/ a\ Esdras, aux e/gyptiens et me^me a\, Aristote, Revue de
l'Orient Chre/tien 12 (1907) 14-21.
\17/ The various MSS give varying
attributions. NAU, Opuscules, also
published a document of this type attributed to the prophet Ezra.
\18/ Ed.
by NAU, Opuscules.
\19/ See
J.-B. CHABOT, L'Apocalypse d'Esdras,
in: Revue Se/mitique d'e/pigraphie et d'histoire ancienne 2 (1894) 333-346. We have not yet examined this
document in full.
In terms of
general content, there are three types of revelation associated with Ezra --
commission for Ezra to proclaim judgment on living lsrael (5 Ezra); questions
and answers about God's justice in dealing with sinners (4 Ezra, Questions of
Ezra), and especially about rewards and punishments after death and/or visions
of (and itineraries through) heaven and hell (Greek Apocalypse, Latin Vision);
and information about the significance of certain calendar days (Prognostikon,
Latin Revelation, etc.). If one wishes to identify a document which contains
enough of the above elements to serve as a "common denominator", 4
Ezra 3-14 is certainly appropriate. The
Ezra of this lengthy apocalypse is perplexed about the problem of evil and the
fate of God's people. His questions
often take the form of challenges (see also Greek Apocalypse, and to a minor
extent Vision, with the plea "Lord, spare the sinners"). He receives information from angels, has visions,
dreams dreams, is one of a chosen few (8.62). He learns
about God's secrets, about history and its consequences, about times and
seasons (e.g. 6.7, 10.39, 13.58). He bewails the fate
of sinful mankind, and especially
The direct
points of contact between this Ezra and the Ezra of the aforementioned
narratives seem to be four: both live in the aftermath of
IV. Synthesis
and Suggestions
How are we to understand the development and origins
of these diverse traditions? Shall we
trace them all to a single common root?
The narratives concerning the priestly Ezra seem to be the earliest
preserved evidence. Has the prophet Ezra
developed from them? If so, that stage
of the development has left virtually no
traces and it taxes the imagination to create a satisfactory
explanation. The priestly Ezra of the
biblical traditions is not described in language that encourages his being
transformed into a prophet, although that is not in itself sufficient
demonstration that it did not happen that way.
Perhaps, then, the tradition of Ezra the prophet is
more ancient and gave rise to the priestly biblical personage? Such a development might be understandable if
we suppose that there was a strong Ezra tradition in which Ezra emerged like a
second Moses and appeal to him was made in some sort of polemical context. There are several suggestive elements in the
preserved traditions -- the prophet Ezra sometimes supports a non Judahite
elect remnant (4-5 Ezra) and sometimes is vaguely connected with Samaritan history
(Epiphanius). He preserves
"secret" books for the few who understand (4 Ezra 14). Such a figure could be made more palatable,
if he could not be "forgotten" completely (see Sirach), by
emphasizing his interests in law and in the temple and its cult to the exclusion
of other aspects.
But it is equally possible that at the
earliest stages, respective traditions about a priestly Ezra and a prophetic
Ezra developed independently. Whether a
single historical figure gave rise to
both, or two (or more) Ezras were being remembered, can no longer be
ascertained with conficence. But at the
earliest stage in which we clearly have these two Ezra figures represented in
the literature -- namely, the date of 4 Ezra (unless 5 Ezra is earlier) -- it
seems quite probable that they would have been considered to be two different persons. As time went on and as the Christian
preservers of such materials became more and more focused on canonical
literature and less open to the often perplexing varieties of material offered
in the "apocryphal" and "pseudepigraphical" texts, the
prophetic Ezra tended to be ignored or transformed into other traditional
persons (like the prophet-priest Jeremiah) or harmonized with the priestly
Ezra.\20/ At present, we can only
glimpse this conjectured development in a few isolated instances. [[135]] Hopefully, continued research will produce
a more complete picture of these developments, and/or will erect a more
satisfactory framework within which to understand the complex Ezra materials
that have been preserved, including those described above.
\20/ In MSS SA of 5 Ezra 1.1ff., the biblical Ezra seems to have
replaced the mysterious "Ezra son of Chusi". That the development here went in the
opposite direction is extremely unlikely on textcritical grounds! For a recent
discussion of some of the historical and textual problems surrounding 5 Ezra,
see G. STANTON, 5 Ezra and Matthean Christianity in the Second Century, Journal
of Theological Studies 28 (1977) 67-83 (especially 68, n. 4 and 69, nn.
1-2). The relation of Ezra and Jeremiah
traditions, as in the Jeremiah Apocryphon or in Paraleipomena Jeremiou,
requires closer attention.
Appendix:
Editions of
Ancient Sources, Key to Abbreviations
Apost(olic) Const(itutions), ad. F. X. FUNK.
Biblical Writings:
For the Hebrew (or Aramaic) texts, see Biblia Hebraica\3,
ed. R. KITTEL and P. KAHLE.
For the ancient Greek versions,
see the editions published under the collective designation SEPTUAGINTA by the
Goettingen Societas Litterarum (Vandenhoeck
& Ruprecht, 1931- ) or, where no Goettingen edition is yet available, the
editions by A. E. BROOKE,
1-2
Chr(onicles).
Dan(iel). Goettingen ed. J. ZIEGLER, 1964.
1
Esd(ras).
Ex(odus).
Ezek(iel). Goettingen ed. J. ZIEGLER,
1962.
Ezra-Neh(emiah).
Isa(iah). Goettingen ed. J. ZIEGLER,
1939.
jer(emiah). Goettingen ed. J. ZIEGLER,
1967.
1-2
K(in)gs = 3-4 Kingdom.
Neh(emiah). See above under Ezra-Nehemiah.
Sir(ach). Goettingen ed. J. ZIEGLER, 1965.
Chron(icon) Pasch(ale).
See note 8.
Clem(ent of)
Epiph(anius). See
note 12.
Eusebius, Pr(a)ep(aratio) Evang(elica), ad. K. Mras.
GCS, 1954.
Esdr(as),
G(ree)k Apocal(ypse of), ed. C. TISCHENDORF,
Apocalypses Apocryphae.
GCS
= Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten
Hippolytus, Comm(entary on) Daniel, ed. G. N. BONWETSCH. GCS, 1897.
Inv(entiones) Nom(inum).
See note 11.
Irenaeus, A(gainst) H(eresies), ed. W. W. HARVEY.
Jer(emiah) Apocr(yphon), see note 13.
Jerome, Commentary on Malachi, ad. D. VALLARSI.
Josephus,
Ant(iquities of the Jews) and
(Against) Apion, ed. B. NIESE.
Justin
(Martyr), Dial (ogue with Trypho), ed.
J. C. OTTO. Corpus Apologetarum Christianorum 1.2,
Lactantius,
Div(ine) Inst(itutes), ed. J. MOREAU. Sources Chre/tiennes 39,
Lactantius,
Epitome (of the Divine Institutes),
ed. E. H. BLAKENEY.
Malalas, see note 9.
Muslim tradition as reported by GINSBERG (see note 2).
Paraleip(omena) Jer(emiou), ed. R. A. KRAFT and A.-E. PURINTUN. Society of Biblical Literature, Texts and Translations 1,
Pseudepigrapha Series 1,
Qur'an [Koran], translated by M. M. PICKTHALL, The Meaning
of the Glorious Koran. New York/London,
1930.
Rabb(inic) tradition as reported by GINZBERG (see note 2).
Suidas, ed. A. ADLER,
Suidae Lexicon.
Syncellus, see note 10.
Tertullian, (De) Hab(itu) Mul(iebri), in De Cultu Feminarum,
ed. J. MARRA,
Thomas, Infancy Gospel of, ed. C. TiSCHENDORF. Evangelia
Apocrypha.
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