Jacob D. Jaffe
University of Pennsylvania
The authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls came from a culture with an advanced literary tradition. Not only did they produce new literature, they commented on older literature in their pesharim. By examining their work from a literary standpoint, one c
an learn a lot about the culture from which the writers came. Specifically, the Hodayot, or "Thanksgiving Hymns" are an example of an original work not found elsewhere in the modern canon. Given this information, one can make a reasonable assumption tha
t the influences found in the Hodayot reflect the lives and times of the authors.
To aid in the analysis of the hymns, it is possible to make a rough breakdown of the scroll based on the voice used by the author. The author or authors for the most part refer to themselves in the first person, but the personality of the "I" takes on radically different colors throughout the work (note that all referenc es refer to 1QH unless otherwise stated).
Each section deals with at least the two primary subjects, man and God. The two longer sections both deal with distinctions among men, namely the servants of God and the evil ones (everyone else). Each section has its own imagery as well, and the vis ions portrayed in the "Servant" section have some particularly vivid images. The documents also raise questions, both explicitly in the text and implicitly from their interpretation. To address these questions, an attempt will be made to frame answers t aken from analysis of the text itself, and not from outside sources. The main question being asked is, "What do these texts say to an outside reader?" The answers include information about what the authors felt about God, themselves, and the social situation around them.
This first section's author sees himself somewhere in between the impure man and the pure servant. However, it is obvious that he believes that all of man's lot is predestined:
In your wisdom you es[tablished] eternal [...]; before creating them you know all their deeds for ever and ever. [...] [Without you] nothing is done and nothing is known without your will. (col. 9:7-8)In reference to himself he is wondering which lot God has already chosen for him. He refers to himself as "I" and always refers to the "servant" in the third person (col. 4:21-23). He wants to become the servant, but may be looking for a sign from God i ndicating his purity. For the present, he considers himself lowly because he is among the mortal, inherently tainted with evil. However, he does feel as if God has placed some spirits in him (col. 4:17), helping him to serve God correctly.
For this author man is vile; equated with sin and impurity. Anyone who does not follow God's precepts is wicked, and "should die (col. 4:21)." Man is but dust and water. Interestingly enough, the author picks up on the cliche excuse of things being the woman's fault. Instead of saying human being or man, the author chooses the phrase "someone born of a woman (col. 5:20)" here, as if the fact that a man is issued from a woman defiles him and makes him unworthy. Despite man's shortcomings, there are those men who have the privilege of being God's servants, which was alluded to earlier. These are the lucky men, predestined to have the spirit of God in them. In this way God controls their actions, and the servants are prevented from sinning. In ret urn, the servants get to glimpse the "mysteries of God's insight (paraphrase col. 5:19)" and "approach God's intelligence (paraphrase col. 6:13)." It is also the duty of the pious ones to react violently against all the wicked.
God takes on a variety of roles in this first section of the document. God is variously referred to as purifier, forgiver, savior, protector, builder, obliterator, teacher, and judge all in six columns. Above all, God is the predestiner who has alrea dy created all the actions and workings of the universe, keeper of the "holy vault". Despite this idea of inherent predestination, God puts man through ordeals to purify him (col. 6:4) and restores him through punishments (col. 4:22). There is an overri ding equation of God and Truth throughout the entire document. In fact, truth is mentioned so many times in the document in relation to God that the authors must have felt that God existed as the purest truth, the ultimate knowledge.
Another major facet of God is the personality of "judge." God's will and justice are synonymous for the author. The author also describes some more abstract components of God's personality. God is slow to anger, yet shows zeal in his judgments. God is supposedly lenient and compassionate, yet God establishes the wicked simply so he can make an example of them when he carries out his judgments (col. 8:23-25). Overall, the author clearly sees God as the entity in charge of everything, and wants t o try to gain favor with this all powerful being.
The author also views himself in a special position with regard to "others." Looming on the horizon are the Wicked, who try to tempt him with material gifts and wealth (col. 6:19-20). Instead, it seems that the author adopts a policy of asceticism to come closer to God. Additionally, it is obvious that the author abhors the Wicked, in concurrence with what he believes is God's policy. The author loves only that which is ordained by God, and rejects all else which he believes is not favored by God (col. 6:20-21,26). To combat this wickedness, the author alludes to a "Community" of people who try to stay true to God's precepts (col. 7:7-13). He also refers to this group as "the Many," an interesting parallel between this work and some of the more informational works like the Rule o f the Community.
With column 9 begins some imagery which further reveals the degree of development of the contemporary literary style. Nature imagery is the most common among the entire 1QH, and it is freely mixed and equated with what is holy (and unholy). The most important idea to watch is the tripartite equation of earth, sea, and creatures with God's strength, wisdom, and will, respectively (col. 9:13-15). Especially, the analogy of water to wisdom can be traced throughout the rest of the document, and it is ap parent that somehow this author saw water as a powerful natural force of God.
Perhaps the three-fold analogy was a popular literary device at the time, for it can be seen again in column 9, lines 10-12. Here, holy entities receive natural counterparts, perhaps as representatives of their existence on earth. The angels become the stars; the eternal spirits, the winds; and the mysterious luminaries, lightning and thunder. Carrying these analogies through while reading the rest of the document lends a new angle of interpretation to what would seem just simple references to nat ure. With this information, a line like "I am a creature of clay, fashioned with water (col. 9:21)" can be read as "I am formed by God's strength, enlivened by God's wisdom." It is important to recognize these images and analogies this early in the docu ment so that their meanings can be carried over to interpret the rest of the scroll. By treating this text as a socio-historical piece of literature, one can fashion some theories about its content. The burning question is, "who is the author?" It seem s most likely that he is a proselyte in a community dissatisfied with the current social stance towards God. This man wants to become closer to God, and he feels that the way to do that is through asceticism and ordeal. He is not yet a full member of th e community, as he never equates himself directly with a servant, but he is striving to become one. This scenario provides strong agreement with the dictums set forth in the Rule of the Community, which describes an examination period in which a neophyte is not yet granted full membership status. It is also clear that the author believes in predestination, or at least has been told that everything is predestined. However, the neophyte still has some questions or possibly doubts about this theory. He a sks the simple questions like "What will I be able to say which is not known? What will I be able to declare which has not been told? (col. 9:23)". Perhaps the neophyte does not understand the point of his conditioning if he thinks that his lot has alre ady been determined.
The other main task is interpreting the purpose of this section of the document. Of course, the word "thanks" appears so many times in the document that it was given the artificial title "The Thanksgiving Hymns." But what purpose did it serve as l iterature to those who wrote it? The sense is that this section is too personal to be considered liturgy. It appears more as a personal rhetorical conversation with God, or an exercise of conditioning for a person struggling to strengthen his beliefs. In one instance, the author pleas to God for help (col. 8:26), perhaps a sign of the frustration of adhering to a minority belief system in a time dominated by rulers from other cultures (i.e. the Greeks or the Romans).
However, its overall placement in the scroll (first) lends another clue. The next section is administered in a much more commanding, authoritative voice, so this section could be a "set up" or introductory passage. After all, it does introduce some of the main ideas prevalent in the next section, like predestination, the Wicked, and the natural imagery and analogies which carry throughout. Perhaps they were both written by the same author, but at different dates, like a journal, thus illustrating the transition from neophyte to full member.
In any case, it is evident that the document represents a literary tradition which employed imagery, analogy, and form. This literary style often employs the device of what can be termed "trichotomies"; that is, the division of an entity into three parts (the term trinity is rejected due to its obvious Christian implications). Specific examples of this include the God:Community:Wicked, Strength:Wisdom:Will, and Angels:Spirits:Luminaries trichotomies. In fact, even in simple repetitions, a point is often stated three times in different ways. As to the significance of the number three, there is no explicit explanat ion in the text other than it was a literary device. However, it remains a key marker to look for in identifying related literature.
At this point, the author seems so know God intimately:
Through me you have enlightened the face of the Many you have increased them, even making them uncountable for you have shown me your wondrous mysteries. By your wondrous advice you have strengthened my position and worked wonders in the presence of the Many on account of your glory, (col. 12:27-28)This "I" sees himself as the leader of a community, having taken on the burden of sin for all his ancestors (col. 12:34). With the change in attitude comes the expansion and development of positions on man, God, and "the others.", as well as imagery that is far more expressive than in the first section. At the base of it, man is still just clay and dust (col. 18:3).
Again, two types of men are evident: those who believe and those who don't. The man who believes has evolved into a "son of truth (col. 15:30)." The one who does not believe is empty, the "owner of futility (col. 15:32)." The non-believers concent rate on their material possessions for gratification, while the devoted delight in intelligence. The author even points out this material vs. intelligence dichotomy when comparing heroes to sons of truth (col. 18:24-27). No matter how much material weal th the hero has, he can not compare to those of intelligence.
Woman, on the other hand, is still ascribed a negative connotation. Man's sin originates in the "maternal womb (col. 12:29)." The author vividly describes the pain of giving birth to a male, and how these pains originate in Sheol (col. 11:8-12). It appears that man's predestination in determined at the time of birth from the woman, for a man emerges from the "crucible of the pregnant woman." There is a definite difference between the "son of woman" and the "son of man," and to be the former is not very admirable. Such sexism may be evidence that the community which authored some of the other Dead Seas Scroll lacked women among their ranks.
In this second section, God becomes the instiller and protector. The author constantly thanks God for giving him strength and placing the right words on his lips. God is like an inspirational coach, driving on the disciple to do what is right in God' s name. God repeatedly serves as the pillar for the author to lean on (col. 12:22, 14:25, and others). And not until this second section does Belial, the enemy of God, appear. However, God clearly has this under control and destroys all the aspects of Belial in an awesome battle described by the author in column 11, lines 28-36. Still, God is the embodiment of truth.
Interestingly enough, there is a notion of polytheism present in this document, perhaps a challenge to the Greek or Roman deities enforced by political authorities. The author refers to his God as a "prince of gods (col. 18:8)" and asks who is like the Lord "among the gods (col. 15:28)."
However, the notion that the author believes in more than one God is ludicrous, for he often states "there is no-one else." God's development from the first to second section best fits the analogy of a trainer or a coach. In the former section, the s tudent looked for guidance from his mentor. Now, the student has become the champion for God's cause. Perhaps a better choice of profession for God is teacher, for it is evident that the author places high value in the stock of intelligence rather than material items.
The "others" play a big role in the discourse of the second section. They are presented in constant opposition to all the author believes and teaches. He feels constantly assaulted by the wicked ones who, in his eyes, reject the tenets of God. Accor ding to him, the others are slanderous, mocking, and faithless. The biggest concern about the others is that they will attempt to convert the followers of God with their "weird tongues (col. 12:16)" and "by those spreading lies (col. 14:19)." Of course, the author implicates Belial as the driving force behind these others (col. 12:12) and does not hesitate to launch into several tirades about all their wrong-doings (cols. 12,13). Despite constant attack and scorn from the others, the author remains res olute to his purpose, citing God as his support.
The imagery and analogy in the Hodayot is most vivid in this second section. The theme of nature continues, especially in reference to trees and their growth. Also, animals become an integral part of the interpretive landscape. Water retains its iden tity as wisdom and develops into a stronger force. Finally, music seems to have an identity with this society as well. All the time, it is important to look for interpretation of these symbols.
The most prevalent theme is the image of the tree and its growth. The tree first appears implicitly in column 14, lines 15-18. Here the tree is used as an symbol for God's truth. The image of the tree represents a utopian time when the precepts of G od dominate the world. This is interpreted by the reference to Eden and the statements that the tree will touch both the sky and reach down into Sheol (lines 16-17). The tree reappears in column 16 as the tree of life. The text states that the tree of life is "hidden among the trees of water (>translated: wisdom<) (line 6)," and this tree grows to fulfill the world for all God's creatures. Water appears in connection with the tree as well, as a spring of living water.
The story of the trees and their growth in addition to the various water references associated with them is really more of a prophecy than anything else. However, the author implies that by his own hand he can cause the tree to grow (through effort) or wither (through inactivity) (col. 16:22-26). Clearly, the tree is an important symbol to the author, and he associates its growth with the coming of a utopian world which he hopes to promote.
The lions, quite opposite from the tree, represent the evil of the pit (col. 13:7-15). The wicked lions are all the scheming from which God protects the author in addition to the poor and the wretched. It is not a far stretch to call the lions the mi nions of Belial, for that is clearly their connotation. Once again, water is associated with God's wisdom. The writer identifies himself with "fishermen" who, on the sea, go "hunting the sons of iniquity (col. 13:8)." The purpose of this image is to sh ow the danger of Belial, but also to show the power of God to mitigate it.
Music is associated with the utopian kingdom which the author prophecies near the end of this section in column 19. He splits the aspect of utopia into salvation, happiness, joy, and praise, and associates each with the harp, zither, tambourine, and f lute respectively (col. 19:23). Music represents a decidedly positive image as opposed to the dark character of the descriptions of the lions and the wicked others earlier in the document. Also, there is often reference to "singing" God's praise rather than simply saying them. From this, one can conclude that music had a generally good image and important part in the worship and praise of God in the society of the author, who chose to include it as one of the few positive images in his work.
Weapons also take on a role in this document, but function literally rather than symbolically. There is an eschatological section in column 14, lines 28-36. In this section is described a grand scale battle in which God destroys all wickedness, despi te the enemy's well preparedness. This is nothing new in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the War Scroll has a much more detailed plan of the final battle. However, this passage serves importance in that it sets up the possibility of the utopia that the author describes.
Interpretation of this section of the document again rests in treating it as literature. It is clear that the section was written by someone important in the community, who had exposure to the outside. This person was not born into leadership, but attained it through some sort of transformation, supposedly by God. This author is assured of his own position and feels a personal relationship with God, as evidenced by the direct addressing of God and several references to having been shown something by God. This connection to God also inspires a prophecy of utopia as represented by the allegory of the tree and the musical imagery. The section is best described as part conversation, part prophecy. Again, it is unlikely that this is liturgy due to its personal nature. Moreover, it is a declaration of faith in God and a longing for God's final kingdom. One can learn that the author of this document put absolute faith in God, enough even to save him in the lions' den. It is also evident that the author (and p resumably his community) had no tolerance for those outside the community who would tempt members away or ignore God's teaching. These ideals represent a staunch community with a deep commitment to a designated lifestyle. The prophecies represent a defi nite vision that at least the author hoped to attain through his own effort: final perfection through God's truth.
Additional literary devices appear in this section. The rhetorical question, although present in the first section, seems to take on special importance. The questions usually come in blocks of three or six (examples are col. 15:28 and 18:5), and often serve as an introduction to a passage praising God. Again, the number three seems to be a significant literary tradition. Another trichotomy arises, the father:mother:wet-nurse division of God. The father aspect represents establishment or strength, the mother represents compassion, and the wet-nurse is the teacher, from which the child (man) gains knowledge (col. 15:20-21 and 17:20-31). The use of imagery and symbolism in this second section is unparalleled in either of the other two sections, and one can only assume that all these devices are employed intentionally due to their repetition throughout the document.
This section can not be analyzed in the previous pattern of man, God, and "others" due to its short length and limited content. What can be learned is that the author still feels a personal relationship with God, but not as strongly as before. He feels as if he has done all he can to further God's precepts and is now wondering why the kingdom of God has not yet arrived. This would further the single author theory, for it may refer to his earlier role as the Instructor. Naturally, nearing the end of his days, he is wondering what will happen to him when he passes on. Curiosity about the afterlife is obviously not a new idea. There is still the negative connotation associated with being born of woman, and the author's attitude about man is simil ar to that of the first section: man is filth and dust, held together only with water (that is, God's wisdom). Although specific roles are not ascribed to God here, the author refers to God in the position of arbiter. The author also may think that God h as abandoned him, for he wonders why all the evil is allowed to exist (frag. 3:13-16) and pleads with God to keep the covenant with him (col. 23:9- 10). This piece exhibits the most raw human emotion of all the sections, exposing the personality of the author to a great extent. The text has a depressed aura to it, especially due to lines like "But my heart is disturbed [...] and my heart melts like wax on account of fault and sin (frag. 4:13-14)." Instead of primarily praising God, this piece has more to do with the author whose questions are still unanswered.
The main literary device employed is the rhetorical question. This section is loaded with them in no particular pattern or order. The best explanation for this has already been stated: a man nearing the end of his life wants God to answer all his que stions before he goes. Repetition of the key phrase, "I, I am a creature of clay" forces the reader to remember this point: a human is not God. No matter how much one tries to follow the path of God, the final judgment of everyone and everything rests o n God's shoulders. Other than rhetorical questions and repetitions, no other real literary devices are employed. The imagery and trichotomies seem to have disappeared in this final section.
On the other hand, perhaps these three sections are only excerpts from a much larger journal that was not preserved, or perhaps that these three pieces were so representative of the ideal life of a community member that they decided to keep them as an exa mple. In any case, this document is more than just "Thanksgiving Hymns." It is certainly valuable as a historical document and may even chronicle the life of an individual who lived roughly 2000 years ago.
Aside from that theory, the close reading and interpretation of the Hodayot is a valuable activity. One can now get a sense of the prevailing attitudes and major images that were integral parts of the Dead Seas Scroll community. Such an activity is a lso a continuation of the tradition that the community itself had: interpretation of documents in the form of pesharim, or commentaries. In addition, such an activity is a basis for even further investigation into contemporary documents and may provide clues to some of the imagery, analogies, and allusions therein.