Discussion of Kloss, Types of Multilingual Communities

Mother tongue, major types:

• Monolingual type A: Iceland, Portugal, Japan
• Bi-trilingual type B: consists of 2 or 3 ling. communities EACH of which has at least 4 percent of the population. Three seems to be the maximum that can be put on an equal part (Switzerland, India, 3 lg. formula). More than 3 seems to overtax, tangle, render inefficient the state's admin. and legislation etc. Equality of 2 in Canada, Belgium, Finland and 3 in Switzerland (India's 3 is fictitious) and even in Switzerland the 3rd (Italian) gets short-changed.
• Multilingual type C: more than 3 languages: usually a 4-plus language situation is neutralized by (1) a foreign language, eg. English/French etc. Great disruption occurs. Even in many B and C countries, multilingualism is restricted to the federal level, while in the States/cantons, etc. monolingualism reigns (Belgium, Switzerland, etc.)

1. Fully monolingual citizenry. Examples of an NCC A1: Portugal, Iceland, Japan

2. Diglossic citizenry. Examples of an NCC A2: Greece, Egypt, Haiti: diglossic language, two varieties.

3. Bilingual citizenry. Examples of NCC A3: citizenry may be monolingual but is faced with another language (2nd) in school, cultural setting, etc. Nagaland?

4. Tri/multilingual citizenry. Examples of NCC A4: monolingual Maltese are faced with Italian and English as second/3rd (diglossic?) languages; monolingual Luxemburgers are faced with French and German as 2/3rd languages.

NCC's of types A2-4 are monolingual only in childhood/home language. ``Monopaidoglossic" (?)

In NCC's of 3 and 4, the 2nd or 3rd tongue is characterized by:

1. Voluntarism: no compulsion by external factors to adopt 2nd tongue as own

2. Permanence: long term stability in relationship between 2 lgs.
3. Functional diversification: different domains of diff. lgs.

We need cover term for diffs betw. 2 and 3/4: endo-diglossic vs. exo-diglossic?

While NCC's of type A are common, type B (bilingual) may be monolingual or bilingual, usually widespread B NCC's are very rare: even where they may be equal by law, widespread biling. citizenry is usually not: Switzerland, Belgium remain monolingual, Canada exhibits biling. mostly among French, etc. etc. S. Africa biling. mostly among Afrikaaners, etc.

Often the international reputation of a language may have some influence on tendency of other tongue speakers to learn it, but this has no effect in the case of English speakers in Canada learning French.

NCC B: various types:

1. Bilingual, but only one lg. official: 19th century Belgium (Dutch were backward)
2. One community is numerically inferior
3. One pursues a policy of linguistic oppression at all costs. (19th century Russia; Sri Lanka 1958-present, Iraq towards Kurds, etc.)

NCC's of type C: (more than 3 languages of sizable population).

1. Enthrone one indigenous and one foreign: Pakistan
2. Use two imported ones (Italian and English in Somalia, French and English in Cameroon)

Personal Bilingualism:

1. natural bilingualism: result of mixed marriages, mixed neighborhood, etc.

2. voluntary bilingualism: result of strictly private endeavor, or is matched by efforts of the state to encourage it (lg. is not only taught, but used)

3. decreed bilingualism: backed by state but against wishes of population (Poland pre-1914, Ukraine under Czars, etc.)

Impersonal bilingualism: official blanks (census forms, social-security application forms, IRS forms), postage stamps/currency, official public notices (posters), etc. (People are not bilingual, things are.)

`bilinguisme de promotion' vs. `biling. de concession/resignation' (Belgium)