The Society of Jesus, an order of the Catholic faith, is especially noted for their educational, missionary, and charitable works. Its founder, Ignatius Loyola(1491-1556) is described as the embodiment of the Roman Catholic Church and the Counter Reformation. The Society of Jesus was the last major medieval monastic order force during the Counter reformation when it was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540, and remains a successful and influential force in the Catholic Church today.
Ignatius Loyola was preparing for knighthood in Spain when his military ambitions were shattered from injury. After suffering a great deal of physical and emotional pain, Ignatius believed that God was calling him to become a "spiritual" knight instead. In March of 1522, Ignatius offered his sword in service to Mary. He exchanged his clothes with a beggar and clothed himself with the "armor of Christ."
At this time, Ignatius went into an acetic retreat, and wrote The "Spiritual Exercises", a four part series of rules and meditations that are still seriously practiced today. The exercises were written to strengthen and discipline a person's will to conform to and serve the will of God. The first part of the series asks the individual to have deep consideration of sin and its consequences. The second part relates the significance of ChristÕs kingdom and his life. The third part focuses on the Passion Story, and the final part involves meditation on the risen and glorified Christ. Participation in the Spiritual Exercises was intended to last four weeks.
Ignatius believed the problems of the church during this time of protest stemmed from a personal aberration instead of a doctrinal aberration of the church's teachings and practices. The key to reform was not a reform of the church, but a reform of the individuals of the church. The individual must practice self mastery of their own will. In an attempt to reach out to other individuals in the church, Ignatius set up the Society of Jesus, emphasizing action in the world.
The Jesuits became aÊvery successful force in the Counter Reformation due to their structure, doctrine, and educational policy. Jesuit priests traveled around the world promoting advanced learning and strong devotion to the authority of the church. Due to Ignatius's military background the structure of the order was also military in nature. Priests followed their mission wherever they were told to go in service to God. While they were undergoing rigorous academic and spiritual training, they were required to take a special vow of obedience to the pope as well as the regular vows of poverty, chastity and obedience.
Missions were established in India, Malaysia, Africa, Ethiopia, Brazil, Japan, China, and Latin America. Protestantism was combated in Europe through political influence and effective education. They influenced political leaders who had the power to suppress Protestantism and founded grammar schools and the Roman and German Colleges. By the time Loyola died in 1559, there were already 1,000 members. By 1773, when Pope Clement suppressed the Society, the Jesuits had 800 colleges teaching over 200,000 students. At this time, 15,000 of the now 23,000 members were teachers.
The doctrine advocated by the Jesuits was justification by divine grace and human works. It can be characterized as combining mysticism with activism and meditation with work ethic. Mysticism and meditation are apparent in the Spiritual Exercises and human works and work ethic are clear in their educational and missionary pursuits. In 1558, Luis de Molina emphasized that strict predestination was replaced by a provisional predestination based on merits. The lenient attitude the Jesuit confessors advocated is called Probabilism. Probabilism asserted that between two probable opinions, neither could be considered decisive. This allowed a subjective interpretation of the moral law, and was in direct conflict with some the stricter interpretations of predestination of other orders, including the Dominican.
Perhaps the biggest influence the Jesuits have had in Europe was furthering the baroque culture during the seventeenth century. During this time, several Jesuit painters came to the forefront including Rubens, Teniers and Van Dijck. Their art celebrated the supernatural, cosmic and divine order of the universe. It was very colorful, sensuous, and ostentatious. It was intended to overwhelm the senses with a feeling of beauty. Its purpose was to remind people that they belonged to a triumphant Christendom. A religious emotionalism resulted from the baroque art and help spread the Jesuit's message of service to God. Many of Rubens' religious works were specifically painted for Jesuit churches.
Last week I had the opportunity to interview Father Dennis McNally, head of the Art Department at St. Joseph's University. He regularly conducts services at St. Joseph's, teaches art classes, advises students, and continues his own artwork, especially during the summer.
After graduating from a Jesuit run high school and college, he started training for the order when he was twenty years old. During that time, he has obtained several degrees-including a Masters in Art Education, completion of the Divinity program, and a Ph.D. in Church Architecture. The Society paid for his education, but it had to be approved. He receives an allowance now for art supplies, but everything else he earns go directly to the church. His room and board is provided by the university.
Father McNally told me that much of his training in the order consisted of periods of praying and silence. Living conditions were pretty severe, yet today, he assures me, they are probably not as strict or disciplined. He started teaching while he was in school and continues to today. The only problem he has had with his teaching practice involved a dissent in having a priest use nude models in class. The Parish Council was involved, but he was able to continue this very common method of art instruction. He said that the conflict or controversy surrounding the issues of art and religion stem from problems with the way American society perceives what proper roles should be. Many galleries will not represent religious work, or work that is associated to one specific belief or practice. He also said that his art may be overlooked or devalued because people do not think a priest should doing art in the first place.
Father McNally stated that the reason the Society of Jesus has remained strong is due the practice of the Spiritual Exercises. One week of every year is devoted to the exercises. The entire month-long practice is something that is done only a few times in one's lifetime. He also stated that because the men are so well educated, they are taught to ask questions. This is perhaps why they are considered to be fairly liberal-minded. However, there are a variety of opinions concerning different issues, allowing for debate among the group
.
Click
Here
to return to the list of RELS133 Student Presentations